Humanities Specialists: September 2016

Friday, 30 September 2016

By what means and to what extent did Napoleon Bonaparte exercise power over other European states during the years 1802-1812?

By what means and to what extent, did Napoleon Bonaparte exercise power over other European states during the years 1802 to 1812?

Introduction

Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled France from 1799 to 1815 adopted many methods to try and exercise control over other European states. The methods included military conquests and alliances just to mention a few. In most cases the methods only succeeded in the short run but in the long term they were to a larger extent a total fiasco and they contributed greatly to the demise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Methods used

1) Dynastic policy-Napoleon instilled his brothers as kings in conquered territories e.g. Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples, Jerome Bonaparte as king of Westphalia, Louis Bonaparte as king of Holland. His close friend Bernadotte was made king of Sweden. The dynastic policy was a success the short run as Napoleon was able to control these states and to let the Napoleonic legacy was felt everywhere. However, in the long run the policy was a failure as it aroused nationalistic feelings which ultimately undid Napoleon.

2) Military conquests-Napoleon engaged in military conquests in order to make other European states subservient to him e.g. the battle of Trafalgar with Britain, the battle of Ulm with Austria, the battle of Jena with Russia, the battle of Austerlitz etc. In these battles, he succeeded, but as he continued waging war with other European state he ended up on the receiving end.

3) Taxation-the conquered states were forced to pay tax to Napoleon eg Italy. The tax burden on the Frenchmen was lessened but created resentment from many European states.

4) Use of treaties-Napoleon 1 made treaties with other nations where he dominated their terms e.g. treaty of Amiens with Britain1802, treaty of Tilsit with Russia1807, Treaty of Pressburg with Austria 1805.

5) Alliances-were made with countries such as Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Russia and Austria but in most cases these alliances were short-lived because Napoleon ended up dominating his counterparts.

6) Continental System-all states under France were not going to trade with Britain. Napoleon 1 issued the Berlin and Milan decrees and Fontainebleau decrees. The Continental System only crippled Britain to a very limited extent. In the end it was Napoleon who earned hatred and this contributed to his downfall.

Conclusion

It can be inferred from the above lines that Napoleon Bonaparte used various methods. He was very successful with the methods especially up to 1807. However, after 1807, the methods were a disaster. Napoleon 1’s aggressive foreign policy became his Achilles heels because the methods he implemented were not accepted by other European nations.
Why did successive coalitions from 1805 take so long to defeat

Question Demands:

The key issue is an assessment of Napoleon1’s foreign policy showing the methods he used in trying to dominate Europe and whether the methods were successful or not.

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Thursday, 29 September 2016

Advanced Level Zimbabwean History Revision Questions

Advanced Level Zimbabwean History Revision Questions
1. “Portuguese and Arabic written records are the only
reliable sources in the reconstruction of pre-colonial
Zimbabwean history.” Assess the validity of this
assertion.
2. Assess the contributions of oral tradition, archeology
and written records towards the discovery of
Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history [Nov 2005]
3. With reference to the Gokomere, Ziwa Leopard’s
kopje cultures, explain how early Zimbabwe societies
improved their technology. [Nov 2005]
4. In what ways did the use of iron transform the
economic and social bases of early societies in pre-
colonial Zimbabwe? [Nov 2005]
5. Assess the validity of the assertion that the Great
Zimbabwe state relied on agriculture and cattle as the
main basis of its economy. [Nov 2005]
6. To what extent did trade contribute to the decline of
Great Zimbabwe?
7. Analyze the economic and social activities of the
people of Great Zimbabwe?
8. Critically evaluate the Arabic and Portuguese written
sources referring to Great Zimbabwe and the Mutapa
State before 1570.
9. Discuss the archaeological evidence for the Early
Iron Age in Zimbabwe. What does the period represents
in social, economic and political terms?
10. “The historical value of Oral Tradition in the study
of pre-colonial Zimbabwean history remains
questionable unless it is used alongside with other
sources.” How far true is this assertion?
11. With reference to the movements of the Shona in
Zimbabwe up to 1000AD critically examine the theories
of migration and diffusion.
12. Some historians have claimed that during the Iron
Age period the means of production and productive
relations changed substantially around 1000AD in
Zimbabwe. What archaeological evidence supports this
assertion? [Nov 2006]
13. Evaluate the utility of Rock Art as a class of
archaeological data.
14. With reference to the San, estimate the extent to
which the present Zimbabwean societies have benefited
from the San’s way of life.
15. Examine the various theories that have been put
forward by scholars to explain the builders of Great
Zimbabwe.
16. What crafts were developed during the middle part
of the Iron Age [700-1100]? Explain why demand for
these crafts increased.
17. What do archaeologists today know about Great
Zimbabwe? What more do we need to know?
18. “Wealth in cattle, trade goods and metal
production led to the growth of states in the Middle
Iron Age.” Assess the validity of this assertion.
19. “The movement of gold trade to the north from the
Lundi and Sabi to the Zambezi fully explains the decline
of Great Zimbabwe.” Discuss.
20. How important is rock art in the reconstruction of
the history of the Late Stone Age period in Zimbabwe
21. “Like Toutswe, drought and overgrazing led to
famine for cattle and people.” Is this a convincing
explanation for the decline of Great Zimbabwe?
22. “The origins and date of Great Zimbabwe were a
great mystery.” Discuss.
23. “It is clear from the evidence we have that the
Great Zimbabwe walls were purely for religious
functions.” How accurate is this assessment?
24. What were the economic, political and social
features of the state of Mapungubwe? Explain why the
state declined in the period from1200-1300.
25. Discuss the various ways found by archaeologists in
which the Early Iron Age cultures of Zimbabwe
continued into the Later Iron Age.
26. What can archaeology tell us about life in the Early
and Later Iron Ages? What can it not tell us?
27. Discuss the growth of patriarchy in the Later Stone
Age and Early Iron Age societies in Zimbabwe. Did
women and children suffer?
28. Discuss the economic, political and social features
of the hunter-gatherer communities in Zimbabwe in the
Late Stone Age period.
29. What were the main features of the Iron Age
cultures at
[a] Leopard’s Kopje
[b] Gokomere
[c] Ziwa
[d] Mabveni
30. How do we know that the people of Great Zimbabwe
were involved in the regional and inter-regional trade?
31. Why do you think Great Zimbabwe may have had
religious and military importance?
32. How did livestock keeping and agriculture make
people live a more settled life?
33. How was the growth of states in the later Iron Age
related to trade and religion?
34. Critically examine the methods that have been used
to recover Zimbabwe’s pre-colonial history.[Nov 2003]
35. Assess the validity of the assertion that archaeology
is the only source of historical evidence for the Late
Stone and Early Iron Age periods in Zimbabwe?
36. “The Leopard’s Kopje culture in Western Zimbabwe
and adjacent regions of Botswana and South Africa
marked the emergence of chiefdom and state societies
in the region.” Do you agree with this statement?
37. Explain the reasons for the decline of Great
Zimbabwe in the 15th century.
38. Identify and assess the economic, social and
political changes, which occurred in Zimbabwe during
the Early and Later Iron Ages? [Nov 2003]
39. What evidence is there to show that Great Zimbabwe
participated in regional and interregional trade? [Nov
2003]
40. Explain how hunting and gathering influenced the
way of life of the early Shona communities in Zimbabwe.
[Nov 2004]
41. Compare and contrast the lives of the Later Stone
age and Iron Age communities in Zimbabwe. [Nov 2004]
42. How far true is the assertion that trade was solely
responsible for the rise and growth of the state centred
at Great Zimbabwe?
43. Examine critically the reasons for the rise and fall
of the Great Zimbabwe? [Nov 2003]
44. Using appropriate examples from pre-colonial
Zimbabwe, argue for the importance of rock art as a
class of archaeological data.
45. Analyse the three controversies related to the
origins and rise of Great Zimbabwe. [Nov 2006]
46. What factors explain the emergence and decline of
the state of Mapungubwe?
47. Why is it necessary to use a multi-disciplinary
approach in the study of pre-colonial Zimbabwean
history?
48. “Art for art’s sake.” Is this a useful interpretation
of the rock art of the Late Stone Age in Zimbabwe?
49. “A typical example of a cultural conquest of the
conquerors by the vanquished.” Is this a fair
assessment of Ndebele-Shona relations.

Wednesday, 28 September 2016

Zimsec Sociology Advanced level Questions

Sociology Questions 9157/1 N2015

2. 'Individual behaviour is more of collective expectations rather than individual choice'. Discuss

3. 'An egalitarian society is more of a myth than a reality'. Discuss

4. Assess the relevance of the Biological Theory as an explanation of crime.

5. 'Culture influences the creation of masculine and feminine behaviour.' Discuss

6. Assess the relevance of interviews as research instruments.

7. Analyse the view that social stratification is a system of benefits and losses.

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With Moses God spoke mouth to mouth... Introduction sample

Divinity Introduction Sample

With Brian Maregedze

"With Moses God spoke mouth to mouth,clearly and not in dark speech--".in light of this statement.Discuss the significance of Moses in the development of prophecy in Israel.

Moses has been labelled the "prototype and or the archetype figure" in light of his closeness, interaction with Yahweh and also the development of prophecy in Israel. He has also been hailed as the standard, the canon of prophecy in Israel based on the significance attached to the Exodus burning bush incident with Yahweh revealing his sacred name to mankind, the Decalogue among other cases. However, not all experts of religious studies and theology would agree to the emphasis that rests on Moses thereby bringing in other exaplanations based on the Abrahamaic theory, the Political theory, the Philological theory among others in the development of prophecy in Israel.

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Tuesday, 27 September 2016

Lobengula and Colonization of Zimbabwe

To what extent did Lobengula contribute to the colonisation of zim

Qstn demands
To what extent did Lobengula contribute to the colonization of Zimbabwe

-What is colonization?
-Who was Lobengula?

I am of the view that Lobengula was more of a victim of circumstances in the colonization of Zimbabwe.
In as much as he was influenced into signing of Treaties that were used to colonize Zimbabwe like the famous Rudd Concession, it is also undeniable that the colonization of Zimbabwe was masterminded by not only Cecil John Rhodes but with the Imperial force of the time- the British government. The documents of the British South Africa Company (BSAC) provides ample evidence to this notion.
Also imperative is that even Eurocentric writers like Tyndale acknowledge that Lobengula was rather a fly in the face of a Chameleon who was slowly waiting to be swallowed.
Again even ordinary chronicles of the accounts of Lobengula's relations with the Europeans is clear that he was 'tricked' therefore sustaining that it is to a limited extent that he contributed to the colonization of Zimbabwe.
Having said that the geo-politics of the time demonstrate that one way or the other the British were eager to divide and rule present day Zimbabwe.
It is no coincidence that events took shape the way they did when Lobengula was tricked by Europeans.
The colonization of Zimbabwe has to be seen in the broader context of the global factors which were @ stake like after the fantasies of Europeans of finding the 2nd rand or the Eldorado with hopes which were put towards the north (present day Zimbabwe)

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Afrocentric view and interpretation of the question.

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Gospels Revision Questions and Answers

Divinity (Gospels)Revision Questions and Answers

Examine the meanings of the miracle stories found in Mark.

The request to ‘analyse and discuss’ means that it should not be simply a list of the main miracles found in Mark. It can be seen as the opportunity to discuss the more ‘human’ side as Jesus compared to the way He is presented in the other Gospels. There are limitations to His power:
• The rejection of Jesus at Nazareth (6:1–6) is important, especially when set beside parallel accounts in Matthew and Luke; Jesus is described as the ‘son of Mary’, He ‘could do no mighty works’ and was amazed at their unbelief’;
• Mark’s inclusion of 7:31–37 and 8:22–26 (both omitted in Matthew and Luke); he took Simon’s mother-in-law by the hand to help her up … , etc.
• Is the Markan Jesus performing more like a traditional shamanistic figure?
However Mark definitely sees Jesus as the ‘Son of God’ who is able to perform miracles in nature in which he demonstrates ‘the power of, and over, creation.’

Qstn. “Luke is the most historically accurate of all the Gospels.” Discuss.

This does not require a lot of information by way of comparison with other Gospels but there should be an attempt to make some comparisons.
Essays should start with the dedication to Theophilus and then attempt to put the Gospel within the wider historical context of events. Key verses:
• 1:5
• 2:1
• 3:1
• 13:4
• There are serious questions as to the historicity when looking at the Birth Narratives and the way the miraculous is heightened from Mark.
• Raises the question as to whether Luke is writing ‘theological history’
• Even though Acts is not part of the syllabus, well-informed candidates are likely to mention it as the ‘second part’ of Luke’s work in relation to the historical accuracy of the gospel

Qstn.Assess the claim that Luke believed the Kingdom of God had arrived through the ministry of Jesus.

Examiners should make sure that only Lukan material is credited in this question. The specific point of issue is that of the closeness or immediacy. Although the future element remains ch12 and ch21 there are many passages in Luke which refer to the Kingdom ‘having arrived’, the miracles providing the demonstration of its power.
• The Magnificat, the Benedictus and the Nunc Dimittis in chapters 1 & 2;
• 7:22 to the disciples of John the Baptist;
• The time longed for by the prophets and kings (10:23), looked for by crowds (11:9) – all present in the work of Jesus; Satan falling like lightning (10:17); but the signs of the times

Courtsey of Cambridge Examinations

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Friday, 23 September 2016

Hosea’s marriage and the lobby for women emancipation

Old Testament Divinity Revision

Hosea's marriage to gomer is a solution to the lobby for woman emancipation.Discuss

With Brian Maregedze

▪ The book of Hosea is very interesting although it appears challenging to most readers of the Bible. The marriage between Hosea and Gomer has variously been interpreted but the writer is more concerned with the metaphorical interpretation of the marriage.
▪There is also need to read Hosea 1-3 with an open eye so as to have an understanding of the book.

▪ KEY WORDS

>Lobby- call for public support through use of influence or persuasion/support for a certain cause.
>Emancipation- being set free from dependence or subjection to slavery for instance.

Hosea' marriage has to be understood in the context of Ancient Israel and or Ancient times of Hosea who forgives an adulterous wife against the tradition which punished females within an adulterous scenario. Males were treated with favour.
However, with Gomer's case she was forgiven.
Also to note is that, Hosea had 3 children who were all female making him a person not honoured by their Jewish tradition.
Instead, Hosea accepted his wife Gomer.

Moving on to modern marriages, Hosea's marriage has been used to lobby(gain support) for emancipation (feminism) since Hosea lived beyond Jewish tradition by embracing his wife despite the circumstances of his time.

This also suggests that both male and female can be regarded as equal since since they have all the right to be forgiven when there is marital infidelity or challenges.

In a Patriarchal social set up, when women commit a crime against their male counterparts the assumption is generally that they should face punishment.
Instead of confronting unfaithfulness with unfaithfulness, Hosea rather responds with love and forgiveness which clearly points to a Bible which propmotes gender balance when dealing with marital problems.
In this regard, the message is that of emancipation since women are usually the victims when it comes to infidelity issues in society.

On the other hand
●candidates can also bring out the view that the marriage between Hosea and Gomer is symbolic demonstrating the close relationship between Yahweh and Israel as a nation.

God being genderless and Israel being promiscuous based on joining other religions.

Over and above all, Hosea's marriage encourages egalitarian marriages were couples should not have a scenario were males dominate in the marriage but rather equality exists.

Read, Amy Bost Henegar(2011).

More points can be added from both sides.

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Live your life

"Old wine in new bottle". How apt is this description to the new ban in Harare demonstrations in September 2016.

The Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) has
issued a new decree banning
demonstrations in central Harare.
Although odd, the move is hardly
surprising. This is a ZANU PF government
and its reaction to setbacks is
predictable: they often respond with the
most unreasonable moves, driven by
arrogance and stubbornness. In order to
understand why this is yet another
misguided and unreasonable move by the
ZANU PF regime, a brief account of
events of the past two weeks is useful.
On 1 September 2016, the ZRP issued
Statutory Instrument 101A of 2016. Its
primary purpose was to ban
demonstrations in central Harare for a
period of two weeks, from 2 to 16
September 2016.
This ban was challenged at the High
Court. On Wednesday 7 September 2016,
Justice Priscilla Chigumba issued an order
declaring SI 101A/2016 invalid because of
its inconsistency with the Constitution.
However, the order of invalidity did not
come into operation because the judge
suspended it for a period of 7 days
allowing a “competent authority” to
correct the defects in SI 101A/2016.
It is within this context that the ZRP have
now issued a new order banning
demonstrations in central Harare. This
time however, they have extended the
ban from 2 to 4 weeks. The new ban will
run until 15 October.
Even if this is to be regarded as the
state’s attempt to correct the defect using
the grace period given by the High Court,
it is impossible to identify the corrective
measure when they have used exactly the
same instrument that failed the last time.
If anything, the new order is worse
because it is for a longer duration. On
the basis of current information, the new
ban suffers from the same defects that
affected the validity of SI 101A/2016.
As previously argued in these pages, the
fundamental and fatal defect of SI
101A/2016 was that it contravened section
134(b) of the Constitution. Section 134(b)
prohibits statutory instruments that limit
or infringe upon fundamental rights set
out in the Constitution. It states that,
“statutory instruments must not infringe
or limit any of the rights and freedoms set
out in the Declaration of Rights” . The
language demonstrates that the
prohibition is mandatory and it means
any statutory instrument which limits or
infringes upon fundamental rights in the
Constitution would be invalid. The effect
of SI 101A/2016 was to limit a number of
rights, including the right to demonstrate,
freedom of assembly and association,
freedom of expression, freedom of
movement and political rights, all of
which are guaranteed under the
Constitution. It was partly on this basis
that Justice Chigumba declared that SI
101A/2016 was invalid because it was
inconsistent with the constitution. In its
order, the court cited sections 2 and
175(6)(a) of the Constitution but the
substantive basis for this consistency was
that SI 101A/2016 violated s. 134(b) and
various sections of the Declaration of
Rights which it violated.
The new order is also issued as
subsidiary legislation. It must therefore
conform to the terms of section 134(b) of
the Constitution. Since it seeks to do
exactly what its immediate predecessor
SI 101A/2016 sought to do, the new ban
carries the same fatal defects which led
the judge to declare SI 101A/2016 invalid.
It is impossible to see how the new order
can survive where SI 101A/2016 failed.
The ZRP have defied the ruling of the
High Court by reproducing a declared
illegality. They have also squandered the
grace period they were given by the
judge to take remedial measures.
When the High Court issued the order
against SI 101A/2016 last week, my view
was that while the suspension of the
order had bought some time for the state
which was keen to dilute the momentum
of demonstrations, it would be impossible
for it to correct the defects which were of
a fatal nature. Even the provisions of
POSA could not save the ban, whichever
authority was used to issue it. It is odd
that the same officer who issued the
defective ban has issued the new ban. In
all probability, the new ban will
therefore suffer the same fate as its
predecessor.
But why would the ZANU PF regime act
in this manner? Why would it do the
same thing that has already failed? Is it
not an act of folly to do the same thing
twice, hoping to achieve a new result?
It can’t just be incompetence, although
it’s a factor. If it’s incompetence, I
suspect it’s deliberate. Part of the reason
is sheer arrogance, the will do as ZANU
PF pleases regardless of what the courts
or the Constitution say. They are ZANU
PF and they do what they want – that is
the clear message.
But this is also a regime that has no
respect for the rule of law or for
constitutionalism. A court has just
declared the limits of its power and gone
out of its way to give it an opportunity to
make corrections, but the ZANU PF
regime had basically scorned it and
repeated the same failed trick. It’s a
clear snub to the judiciary. This is ZANU
PF essentially undermining the judiciary
by disregarding advice and ruling.
It’s also a message to the opposition and
citizens that the legal route they are
pursuing is futile. The law was clearly
pronounced by the court and if ZANU PF
cared to listen they would have done
things very differently, or perhaps even
tried to fast-track amendments to POSA
to ensure consistency with the
Constitution. But no, they have chosen
instead to do a repeat of an already
discredited method. The message from
ZANU PF is that this is a political rather
than a legal matter.
Another reason is that ZANU PF knows
that even if they are doing the wrong
thing, the opposition and citizens will
respond with legal challenges, which will
only buy more time for the regime, while
derailing the momentum of the
demonstrations, which had gained
intensity in July and August and were
getting harder to contain. The underpaid
police had never been so busy for a long
time and now they were required to be
on stand-by every day. At some point,
they were bound to feel the fatigue and
the futility of fighting their own
countrymen and women. The ban on
demonstrations has brought some respite
for the police service and reduced the
risk of depleted morale.
Meanwhile the intensity of
demonstrations has dissipated since the
ban at the beginning of September. While
it is appropriate to use the legal route, it
is also playing into the hands of ZANU
PF. At some point however, the
opposition and citizens must decide
whether that route is serving their
interests or their adversary’s. They may
have to be more creative in their
methods of challenging the ban on
demonstrations, which is likely to be
renewed perpetually every four weeks.
Overall, I am not shocked by what ZANU
PF has done. You always expect the
worst possible response. The renewal
and lengthening of the ban, against the
court’s judgment on the validity of the
instrument was entirely predictable.
ZANU PF has a simply poured the same
old (and cheap) wine into a new bottle.
waMagaisa

http://alexmagaisa.com/2016/09/13/new-ban-on-harare-demonstrations-old-wine-in-a-new-bottle/

Thursday, 22 September 2016

Congress System breakdown- England?

Assess the extent to which the policy of England was responsible for the breakdown of the Congress System.

According to the Quadruple Alliance (1815) of Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia signed in the Vienna Settlement, the four powers agreed to hold periodic meetings to discuss matters of common interest and to consider measures that could be "most salutary for the repose and prosperity of the nations and for maintaining the peace of Europe". So there came the Congress System. In the period between 1818-22, four congresses including the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of Troppau, Congress of Laibach and Congress of Verona were held. However, the Congress System proved to be a failure and it broke down in 1826. The policy of England was responsible for the breakdown of the System to a certain extent. Nevertheless, other factors such as the mutual suspicions among the powers and the rise of revolts also led to the breakdown of the Congress System. England's policy was quite important in leading to the breakdown of the Congress System. England's policy after 1815 was to cooperate in the Concert of Europe without becoming involved in further entangling commitments, to preserve the Continental balance of power, to maintain the maritime supremacy of England as well as to promote and retain markets for English goods and manufacturers in Europe and the New World.

England carried out this policy throughout the Congress System. In the Congress System, she favored the principle of non-intervention to the internal affairs of their states. However, when other big powers took action which would endanger the balance of power, she had to intervene. This created much conflicts between her and the Holy Alliance. There were conflicts between them from the very beginning. In the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Alexander I proposed an "Alliance Solidaire" suggesting that all European states should mutually guarantee not only each other's territories and possessions but also the existing form of government. However, it was rejected by Castlereagh who stated that each state must be allowed to rely for its security upon the "justice and wisdom" of its own system. The powers then began to contemplate separate combination among themselves. The Alliance System and the Congress System were doomed from that moment. Later, there were revolts in Spain, Portugal, Naples and Piedmont. Alexander I proposed in the Congress of Troppau taking intervention against the Spanish Revolt. However, Castlereagh once again rejected it by declaring a "State Paper". No longer, Metternich presented to the Congress a Protocol claiming that any state had succumbed to revolution had to cease to be a member of the Holy Alliance automatically and that other Powers had a duty to coerce the state "back to the bosom of the Alliance". Britain vigorously opposed it because it could make the Allies "the armed guardians of all thrones". The Congress was adjourned and the rupture between Britain and the three autocratic powers was widened. The adjourned Congress of Troppau was resumed later at Laibach. Austria and Russia took military intervention to suppress the revolts in Naples and Piedmont. Britain withdrew from the Congress for it was a direct violation to her principle of non-intervention. So the rupture between Britain and the three Eastern Powers was further widened. Later in the Congress of Verona, Russia and Austria supported the despatch of a French expeditionary force to quell revolt in Spain. Britain again protested and later withdrew from the Congress System altogether because Canning who succeeded Castlereagh believed that if Britain was to lead the world along the middle path between despotism and revolution, she must dissociate herself from the Holy Alliance and place herself in the vanguard of the new movement of nationalism and democracy.

Afterwards, there came the question of the Spanish American colonies. Hoping to promote the growing trade between Britain and the former Spanish colonies in South America, Britain openly supported the revolt of the Spanish American colonies, cooperating with the Americans in making the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that any influence by a European power in the American continent would mean unfriendly act against the USA. The serious disagreement between Britain and the other powers made the breakdown of the Congress System inevitable. Therefore, Britain's policy should be responsible for the breakdown of the Congress System. Owing to her policy, Britain was very uncompromising and she always opposed the policies of the other three powers, causing their relationship become worse and worse. Her final withdrawal from the Congress System prevented the Alliance from acting as a whole, making the eventual dissolution of the Congress System inevitable. Nevertheless, I think that Britain was not the only one who was responsible for the breakdown of the System. Other factors also combined to destroy the whole system. The Conflicts between Britain and the Holy Alliance were the results of the sharp differences between them. Britain was a parliamentary government while Russia, Austria and Prussia were absolute monarchies.

Economically, British economic interest mainly relied on colonial peace since she was a colonial power. But the three autocratic powers' mainly rested on the territories they controlled and so they were against revolutions. As a result, Britain preferred the principle of non-intervention in order to maintain peace in colonies while Austria, Prussia and Russia favored the Principle of Intervention to safeguard their power of monarchy. These two principles frequently clashed and led to much conflicts which gradually deteriorated the relationship between Britain and the other three Powers. It was the two completely different systems made it difficult for the powers to cooperate. Had there not been such differences, great conflicts which undermined the whole Congress System would not have occurred. Moreover, once there was a common aim among the powers to safeguard themselves from France. Though the differences between Britain and the Holy Alliance existed for a long time, this common aim bind the Powers together and prevented them from conflicts.

However, in the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1818, the occupation of France was ended. The Restored Monarchy of France was no longer a menace to the peace of Europe. France was thus readmitted to the rank of a great power and was admitted into the Quadruple Alliance which became the Quintuple Alliance. As H. Nicolson concluded, "Coalitions begin to disintegrate from the moment that the common danger is removed". Once the common enemy was removed, the conflict among the Powers became more prominent and finally led to the breakdown of the Congress System. On the other hand, there were no real cooperation in the Congress due to mutual suspicions among the powers. Their suspicions were first shown in the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. Owing to the fear of the expansion of British naval power, there was objection to the idea that the British would have the right to search ships for slaves in their efforts to enforce the abolition of slave trade. Apart from this, there were also mutual disagreements between Austria, Prussia and Russia though they were said to be in the same camp. In the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, there was joint expedition against pirate. However, due to the fear of Russian expansion, Russia was checked by not allowing her vessels entering the Mediterranean Sea. When the Greek Revolt started in 1821, Alexander I wanted to help the Greeks in order to weaken the Turkish Empire. However, Metternich was determined to prevent the Tsar from supporting the Greeks and to maintain Turkish integrity against Russian aggression. He gained the support of Britain and so the Russian ambition was checked. Later, in 1824, when Alexander I invited the powers to a conference in St. Petersburg to discuss about the Greek Revolt, Russia and Austria clashed again. Russia proposed dividing Greece into three principalities and the Sultan granting autonomy to the Greeks. The other powers were alarmed and there were fear of Russian predominance. Austria would never tolerate strong power as Russia to encroach at the Lower Danube. Moreover, there were fear of France exploiting the issue for a general revision to the 1815 Settlement. Metternich baulked and the collapse of the Congress System was then an obvious fact. From these, we can see that Britain was not the only one who should be blamed. There were not only conflicts between Britain and the other powers but there were also conflicts among the three powers themselves. Moreover, although Britain withdrew from the Congress System at Congress of Verona, the Congress System was not yet extinguished. It was actually the conflicts between Russia and Austria on the Greek Revolt tore the Congress System into pieces.

Furthermore, series circumstances also helped to load to the breakdown of the Congress System. The negligence of liberalism and national identity in small states by the great powers in the Vienna Settlement gave rise to liberalism and nationalism in these small states. The spirit of unrest seethed and in the 1820s, many disturbances and revolts occurred. These revolts such as the Spanish Revolt, Revolts in Naples and Piedmont and the Greek Revolt did have great significances. On one hand, they alarmed the monarchs and consolidated their idea of intervention which clashed with the British idea of non-intervention. For instance, Alexander I was a liberator but later even he was alarmed by the revolts and changed to a reactionary. On the other hand, these revolts led to the summon of the last three Congresses and helped to bring the conflicts among the powers to surface. The Spanish Revolt brought out the conflicts between Britain and the Holy Alliance while the Greek Revolt brought out the conflicts between Russia and Austria and directly led to the breakdown of the Congress System. Events after events worsened the relationship between the powers and accelerated the breakdown of the Congress System.

In conclusion, the policy of England, to a certain extent, had led to the breakdown of the Congress System. However, other factors also worked together to undermine the Congress System.

For more information

Pioneer Column

The settler who mapped the Pioneer Column route
By Alvin Madzivanzira

THE story of the occupation of Zimbabwe would be
incomplete without the mention of Frederick Courtney
Selous.
Popularly known as ‘Sirewu’ by locals who couldn’t
pronounce his name, he became acquainted with both
Mashonaland and Matabeleland during his expeditions.
Selous, a hunter with close knowledge of Mashonaland,
guided the Pioneer Column, a group gathered by
adventurer Frank Johnson to lead the occupation of
Zimbabwe.
Selous was born on December 31 1851 at Regent’s Park,
London, as one of five children of an aristocratic
family.
As a child, Selous had a penchant for stories on
explorations and adventure.
He started by establishing personal collections of various
bird eggs and butterflies and studying natural history.
His African journey began in 1870 when he arrived in
South Africa aged 21.
In 1872, he reached Matabeleland from the Cape of
Good Hope in South Africa.
In Matabeleland, according to his account, he was
granted permission to hunt anywhere in King
Lobengula’s dominion.
Selous, an avid reader of David Livingstone’s works like
The Zambezi and its tributaries, explored the country
and was one figure the Pioneer Column could not do
without.
Early in 1889, Selous met Frank Johnson in then
Bechuanaland (Botswana), which was already a British
protectorate, and he was asked to act as guide for a
gold-prospecting expedition in the upper regions of
Mazowe River.
Another task was to do mapping and literals for the
country they were to occupy.
During that expedition, they made concessions for
mining with chiefs, Mangwende, Mutoko leader of
‘Mabudja’ and Mapondera, among others.
Such an exercise was impossible in Matabeleland as
powerful Ndebele impis were present.
Between August and October 1889, Selous travelled in
Mutoko areas until he reached the powerful Chief
Mapondera’s kraal.
It was during that expedition that he ‘found’ Mt Darwin
and named it after the naturalist Darwin.
Chief Mapondera’s area lay in the centre of the gold-
bearing district.
To avoid trouble with the powerful Mapondera, Selous
obtained a mineral concession and got him to sign a
paper to the effect that he considered himself in no
way under Portuguese rule.
Upon realising the imminent danger of losing Zimbabwe
to a Portuguese garrison, Selous then wrote a letter to
Cecil John Rhodes after returning to the Cape in South
Africa.
Read more: www.thepatriot.co.zw

Makandiwa’s miracle baby: an examination

About the Writer
Brian Maregedze (SHS) UZ, (B.AA)UZ is an independent researcher and essayist.
For feedback/comments call/app +263779210440 or
email, bmaregedze@gmail.com

Examine the story of Makandiwa’s ‘Miracle Baby’ in light of the New Testament conception of miracles.

The concept of miracles in the New Testament have a myriad of similarities with those performed by Makandiwa since he is perpetuating what Jesus has already done. During the time of Jesus the miracles faced severe criticism since some people viewed them as magic. This has a clear comparison to Makandiwa’s miracle baby since he is facing the same criticism from the people because people are in doubt of his source of power. However Jesus performed a plethora of miracles which include exorcism, nature miracles and healing miracles. These miracles are believed to violate the laws of nature, since they cannot be scientifically proved. The Makandiwa’s miracle baby falls under healing miracles. Therefore the task of this essay is to compare and contrast the miracles performed by Jesus and the Makandiwa’s miracle baby. These and other facts are to be analyzed as the essay unravels.

A miracle is a powerful act which demonstrates the power of God, that God is all powerful. Bultmann, (1929: 36) says, “the word “miracle” is comprised of two aspects: as a deed of God and an action of God. It is a divine act in higher causality”. Loos, (1968: 40) noted that miracles are deeds of God in which his actions are revealed to people in a particular striking fashion. Miracles can also be regarded as remarkable events which believers understand to be signs of God’s saving activity. Therefore miracles are nothing but parables in action. Miracles are difficult to understand from a philosophical and radical theologians point of view. It is difficult to differentiate miracles from magic. It is therefore difficult to understand whether a prophet has performed a miracle or it’s a mere magic trick. The above definitions reprimand Makandiwa’s miracle baby.

On the miracle baby the mother identified as Mrs. Moffat claimed that she indeed had pregnancy and bore a baby boy within three days from 15 to 18November2012 and named the child Emmanuel. The prophet had already prophesied that there was going to be a miracle baby. (Newsdzezimbabwe.ourzimournews). Jesus was also a miracle baby who was prophesied by Isaiah in the Old Testament. In the Old Testament were also some miracle babies for instances Samuel who was born from a barren woman. However the biblical miracle babies are different to that of Makandiwa in the sense that their mothers took nine months to conceive and they lived for several years while that of Makandiwa was born in three days and died before nine months and his burial was shrouded in secrecy. Thus the miracle baby of Makandiwa can be seen as a fake baby. Deitl, (1982:146) says, “Miracle claims, it is generally believed, could not be true because of the very nature of the concept of a miracle.” For every miracle there is a purpose. In (Mark 10:45-52), Jesus healed the blind man Bartimaeus out of request and needy not to gain popularity or fame. Loos, (1968:40) says, “Jesus was guided by feelings of mercy and prudence.”

Filson (1960: 35) argued that Jesus performed many miracles, striking acts of power in which the eye of faith saw the special and purposeful working of the living God to further his divine purpose. Filson further states that one must not overstress the uniqueness of this aspect of Jesus’ ministry since he himself noted that others who will follow him will do striking deeds. This may signify that when Jesus performed miracles he did not win immediate and universal support from those who knew him. While Jesus became indignant when opponents ascribed his healing miracles to the workings of Beelzebul (Mark3:20-30), he did not want to win people through these remarkable acts. A clear example is that of temptations whereby Jesus refused to use his power to pressure people into accepting his claims. This is in tandem with the miracle baby of Makandiwa since he did his miracles to draw the attention of the people.

On the miracle baby it is not clear of what prompted the prophet to perform that miracle. Mrs. Moffat the mother of the miracle baby says, in an interview with Tilda Moyo on Radio Zimbabwe, that they were not planning to have another child as they were already blessed with two. There was no need in fact. When Jesus healed the blind man at Bethsaida (Mark 8:22ff) there was a need. Makandiwa would have wanted to show his power which the source is questionable. This is mainly because when Jesus performed a miracle mostly he tells the healed not to tell anyone, (Mark 1:21ff) Makandiwa and other 21st century prophets want their fame to go far and wide.

In line with the above, Jesus’ miracles were shrouded in secrecy particularly in the book of Mark. Makandiwa does it in public. Mangena and Mhizha (2013:137) says, “in a gathering dubbed Judgment Night addressed by Makandiwa organized during the Easter period in 2013 people of all walks, about 100 000 people filled the national sports stadium . The purpose of the miracle baby was mainly to show power. It is apparent that Pentecostal prophets actively make efforts to gain healing powers. Recently a Pentecostal pastor was reported to be making efforts to visit TB Joshua in Nigeria to be given healing powers and was competing against Pentecostal prophet who was displaying more powers than his (Biri, 2012:6)

The healing miracles performed by Jesus were indented to increase faith of the believers. The victims were supposed to show a certain degree of faith in order to be healed. When Jesus healed a blind beggar (Luke 18:35-42) he was identified as the son of David and according to Jesus it was the faith of the blind man which made him to be healed. The woman with hemorrhage for twelve years with no treatment after visiting various doctors was also healed because of her faith (Mark 5:27ff). On the contrary, mother of the miracle baby said the baby came as a result of Prophet Makandiwa’s faith. Jesus never proclaimed his power, when he heals a deaf man (Mark7: 31-36) he advocated for secrecy (Messianic secrecy).

In all miracles performed by Jesus he never asked for payment but the modern Zimbabwean prophets demand money though indirectly. Some of the religious objects or relics like the anointing oil, arm band and holly handkerchiefs are being sold. The miracle baby could have been done to attract the crowd thereby making the pockets fat. It can be the love of money. Chitando et al (2013:9) questions the pan African connections, “Spiritual Fathers from west Africa are they truly from God or gospelprenuership. Can the miracles attributed to the prophets people are rushing there for miracles. This is supported by Vengei (2013:9) who postulates that, “Some suspect that Makandiwa and Angel could be playing African Magic acquired from Nigeria or Ghana where such priests are common, Makandiwa’s spiritual father is Victor Kusi Boateng from Ghana”. What they want unlike Jesus are the crowds. The Newsday of 11 September 2012 reported that congregants stampede for Makandiwa. Therefore prophecy in Zimbabwe appears to be a profession.

Cursory look at the miracle baby show that Makandiwa proclaimed that he wanted to pray for women who experience pregnancy complications. He however prophesied that there was going to be a miracle pregnancy and baby within hours and that did happen as the woman gave birth after three days. He never predicted the death of the child who was later said to have died. (http://nehandaradio.com/category/news) This woman might therefore had complications before and might have joined the church because of that. This leaves no doubt that miracle by Makandiwa has a replica to the miracles performed by Jesus. Filson (1960:36) says, “Jesus’ healing is mainly based on faith.” After Jesus finished healing the woman with hemorrhage he says her faith had saved her. Moule (1965:44) argues that Jesus could heal every sick person brought to him but more than once he notes the need of faith. (Mark 8:22) Makandiwa does not usually test faith and does not want to keep the miracle a secret. Filson (1960:36) argues that Jesus tried to avoid publicity for his healings since he obviously wanted to direct central attention to his gospel of the Kingdom.

Mostly when Jesus performed a miracle there was criticism. In (Mark3: 1-6) he healed a man with a withered hand on the Sabbath. His enemies accused him and he said that it was good to do good on a Sabbath. According to Davey et al (1963:117) Jesus showed that he is the Lord over the Sabbath and had the power to forgive the sins. Fuller (1966:87) says Jesus on his miracles is shown as a Hellenistic wonder worker. Makandiwa has been criticized for using magic. Tapiwa Mujuru, a Methodist Church Bulawayo youth leader says, there is nothing on earth where a baby can be born in three months when Jesus took nine months. He says there is no God responsible for such miracles. It was also speculated that the baby turned into a snake. The then deputy prime minister Prof Arthur Mutambara castigated the miracles as dubious (Herald 21 February 2013). One United Family Interdenominational Church member responded that critics needed spirit of discernment (Sunday mail: 24 February 2013) Makandiwa himself called for a miracle contest which Jesus never did.

It can be seen that in Jesus’ miracles he mainly sought to show that he was really the son of God who had power over every sickness to those who have faith. He could even forgive sins. Jesus mainly performed miracles out of need. The Makandiwa miracle baby tries to show the power of Makandiwa which the source is questionable probably because of his lavish lifestyle. He sometimes performs miracles to gain fame. Just like in the New Testament miracles’ power of God to heal can be seen through prophet Makandiwa. Therefore, Jesus performed miracles to show his superiority over his contemporaries.

In light of the above discussion, it can be concluded that Jesus’ miracles were performed out of need, faith and to show his superiority over his contemporaries. On the contrary, Makandiwa only performed miracles for prestigious reasons.

REFERENCE
Biri K “The silent echoing voice: aspects of Zimbabwean Pentecostalism and the quest for Power, Healing and Miracles.” StudraHistoriaeEcclesiasticae: Journal of the church Histtory of society of Southern Africa, 2012.
Bultmann R. Jesus. Berlin: 1929.
Chitando E et al. Prophets, Profits and the Bible in Zimbabwe. Germany: University of Bamberg Press, 2013.
Davey et al. The Riddle of the New Tasterment. London: Faber and Faber Limited,1960.
Filson F.V. The Gospel According to St Mathew. Black New Testament Commentaries. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1960.
Loos H.V.D The Miracles of Jesus. Leiden: E.J Brill,1968.
Dietl P.J On Miracles in Shatz D. and Catin S.M (eds) Contepmorary Philosophy of Religion. Oxford: Oxford university press. (1982),
Fuller R.H. A Critical Introduction To The New Testament. London: Duckworth, 1966.
Mangena F and Mhizha S, The Rise of White Collar Prophecy in Zimbabwe. A Psycho-Ethical Statement (ed) in Chitando et al Prophets, Profits and the Bible In Zimbabwe, Bamberg: University of Bamberg Press, 2013.
Moule C. F. D. The Gospel According to Mark , New York, Cambridge University Press, 1965.
Vengeyi O. C. “Zimbabwean Pentecoastal Prophets: ReKindling The “True and False Prophecy” Debate” (ed) in Chitando E et al Prophets, Profits and The Bible In Zimbabwe. Bamberg: University of Bamberg Press, 2013.
http://nehandaradio.com/category/newspage/accessed16October2014.
Newsdzezimbabwe.ourzimournews/accessed17October2014.
Newsday 11September 2012.
Herald 21 February 2013.
Sunday Mail 24 February 2013.

Sunday, 18 September 2016

“A period of change and reaction.” How valid is this view on the period 1815-1848 in Europe?

Question Demands:

The key issue is an assessment of the developments in the period 1815-1848. There is need to understand the period before 1815 and bring in comparisons whenever possible. One is supposed to look at whether there were new transformations or whether there was resistance to political reforms as well as economic and social ones.

Definition of terms:

Reaction-response/action to a certain event-especially a return to an earlier condition; retrograde (directed backwards) tendency/opposition to progress.
1) Examine the changes.
-explain that the French revolution and the Napoleonic Wars had a great impact on post 1815 Europe.
-in fact the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the Vienna Settlement heralded new era-it was a turning point/it opened a new chapter in the history of Europe.
-mention the changes and give examples e.g.;
-there were political, economic and social changes after 1815.
Political Changes
-The period was an era that was influenced by the ideas of freedom and equality.
-It was a period that saw the demands for constitutions.
-it was a period that challenged autocracy and absolutism.
-Also liberal and nationalist ideas spread eg the Spanish revolts of 1820 demanded the constitution of 1812.
-Revolts in Naples and Sicily 1820
-mutiny of the army at Piedmont in March 1821 which led to the abdication of Victor Emmanuel
-in Germany, limited constitutions were granted by the rulers in Bavaria and Baden in 1818, and in Württemberg in 1819.
-revolts in Portugal1821-which demanded a constitution
-the Greek Revolt
-nationalism manifested in 1830 in Poland and Belgium.
-in 1830 in Italy and in Germany there were violent protests by liberal groups against authoritarian rule.
-in France, Charles X abdicated after the July revolution 1830.
Economic Changes
-There was industrialization which brought with it the factory system, the evils related to it.
-Furthermore there was the growth of a powerful middle class which demanded more at the expense of a poor working class.
Social Reforms
-socialist ideas grew in France and by 1848 Karl Marx and Frederick Engel had produced the communist Manifesto.

However side

Examine the response of the different governments to the changes above both at national and international levels e.g. revolutions were put down throughout in the 1820s, 1830s and 1848.
-reactionary tendencies of Metternich and the Russian Tsar Alexander eg the Carlsbad Decrees 1819 in Germany ie Metternich drew up a serie of decrees to be imposed throughout the of Germany eg the press was to be strictly censored, the student societies and other forms of political gatherings were prohibited, police officials wer appointed to watch over activities in the universities.
-emphasize that the reaction was sometimes too harsh and it forced people into extreme.
NB: Thus the assertion in the question is true to a large extent.

For more information
Contact us{+263779210440 } or follow the Facebook page Brian Maregedze or like the page Divinity and History A level

☆The whole art of teaching is only the art of awakening the natural curiosity of young minds for the purpose of satisfying it afterwards.☆ -Anatole France

Thursday, 15 September 2016

Fear?

As the days for the final examinations are approaching
by the day, candidates are restless, always up and
about trying to catch up with every source of
information they might think is relevant to get the best
grades. As panic is gripping some candidates with the
adrenaline racing like never before the writer here has
comforting words for 2016 final year candidates or
those supposed to graduate their High school this year.
It is vital for candidates to know that, yes it happens
to have some fear whenever an important stage in life,
this academic life which is a bridge between high school
and tertiary level is about to be completed. The day a
number of candidates received the statement of entry,
it has been something else with sleepless nights reading,
trying to find the best coach in History, Divinity as well
as other Advanced level subjects.
The writer believes in the ability of each and
candidate, the first and important thing to do is
breath and concerntrate on the present. Make sure you
have a proper reading timetable rather than making
efforts to cover every page that you come across for
this creates more panic. Learning is a process and it
will always be.
When I was a high school going age my papa gave me a
very important recipe for academic success which at
first I didn't understand it since I was too young and
only able to recite it. This recipe works under these
conditions where candidates seem to be not sure if they
are ready or not. It is true a majority of students go
through this phase. However, more important and
interesting is that this can be managed with exceptional
suuccess-fear.
My Papa told me that, my son, "Concentration is the
most efficacious antidote to everyone aiming at
success". With this recipe I have endured and
tried by all means to concerntrate on the basic essentials
when reading my books and of course naturally moving
away from fear which disturbs proper learning and
knowledge absorption.
Last but by no means least, candidates should know
and knock into their thinking senses that mountains
cannot be conquored but rather it is our fears which we
need to. It is without doubt Fear (is): False Evidence
Appearing Real. -Anonymous
Stay blessed as you are giving the Final Push and always
remember the recipe of Concerntration, success is
guaranteed.

Wednesday, 14 September 2016

The Various Forms of Form Criticism

A form critic‘s main purpose then was to classify the gospel pericope according
to their forms and to assign them to their perspective sitz-im-leben. Apart from the passion narratives, Dibelius found five main categories;

• Paradigms

These are brief episodes which culminate in an authoritative saying of Jesus, or
sometimes in a statement about the reaction of onlookers. A typical pure
paradigm is Mark: 3: 31-35. Dibelius also cites the following verse as pure paradigms: Mark: 2: 1-12; 18: 22, 23-28; 3: 1-5, 20-30; 10: 13-16; 12: 13-17;
14: 3-9. Dibelius believed that paradigms attained this shape in order to serve as example or illustrations in the preaching of early missionaries. Hence, their
name is derived from the Greek word; paradigms (meaning
example. Dibelius‘ location of the sitz-im-leben of the paradigms in early Christian preaching has been criticized by Bultmann as too narrow. He prefers the term ―apophthegm‖ for pericope of this type, and subdivides them intoncontroversy-dialogues (Mark: 3:1-6), scholastic dialogues (Mark: 12: 28-34), and biographical apophthegms (Luke: 9: 57-62), which purport to contain information about Jesus and were used as edifying paradigms for sermons. V
Taylor has criticized the terminology of both Bultmann and Dibelius and claims that his term ―pronouncement-story‖ is simpler and puts the emphasis in the right place.

• Tales

These are stories of Jesus‘ miracles which, unlike paradigms, include details betraying a certain pleasure in the narrative itself. Dibelius attributed these
stories to a special class of story-tellers and teachers for whose existence
there is no New Testament evidence. These stories may be divided into exorcism (Mark: 5: 1-20; 9: 14-29), healing miracles (Mark: 1: 40-45; 5:
21-43) and nature miracles (Mark: 4: 35-41; 6: 35-44). All these stories follow the same basic pattern;
• A description of the disease or situation to be remedied.
• A statement of the cure or solution achieved by Jesus.
A statement of the results of the miracle-either the effects on the person
healed or the reaction of the onlookers. In contrast to the paradigms they
were not formed for the purpose of illustrating sermons. Their purpose was to prove that the miracle- worker was an epiphany of God.
They were used especially in a Hellenistic setting to demonstrate Jesus‘
superiority over rival gods and miracle-workers. Bultmann who calls these
narratives ―miracle-stories‖ does not endorse Dibelius‘ belief in a special class of story-tellers, but agrees with him that these stories were formed for
propaganda and apologetic purpose.

• Legends

Dibelius took over this term from its application in later Christian centuries to ―legends of the saints‖. It does not necessarily imply that what is recorded
is unhistorical though that may often be the case, in the opinion of Dibelius, and particularly of Bultmann. What is important is the purpose of these
narratives. They are religious narratives of a saintly man in whose works and
fate interest is taken. They arose in the church to satisfy a twofold desire: the wish to know something of the virtues and lot of the holy men and women in
the story of Jesus, and the wish which gradually arose to know Jesus himself in this way. (Luke: 2: 41-49; 4: 29; Mark: 14: 28-33; 16 13-23)

• Myths

These are narratives which depict a many-sided interaction between
mythological but not human persons. The supernatural is seen breaking in upon the human scene. Only three narratives are listed in this category; the
baptismal miracle (Mark: 1: 9-11 and parallel passages), the temptations
(Mark: 4: 1-11 and parallel passages), and the transfiguration (Mark: 9: 2-8 and parallel passages) Bultmann does not use the term ―myth‖ to denote a category, but includes these three narratives among the historical and stories and legends.

• Exhortations

Greek paranesen (is Dibelius‘ term for the teaching material in
the gospels. Their sitz-im-leben is catechesis. Formally, the sayings of Jesus may be divided into maxims ,metaphors, parabolic narratives, prophetic
challenges, short commandments, and extended commandments including
some kind of motive clause (Matthew: 5: 29ff, 6: 2-4). Bultmann‘s treatment of the sayings of Jesus is more extensive.
He divides them according to content into three groups;
1. Logia or wisdom sayings.
2. Prophetic and apocalyptic sayings.
3. Laws and community regulations.

More points can be added

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☆ Learn to get in touch with the silence within yourself, and know that everything in life has purpose. There are no mistakes, no coincidences, all events are blessings given to us to learn from. -Elisabeth Kubler-Ross☆

Monday, 12 September 2016

Harare demonstrations question

"Old wine in new bottle". How apt is this description to
the new ban in Harare demonstrations in September
2016.

Why did the Congress System last no more than ten years?

Question Demands:
The key issue is an assessment of the weaknesses of the Congress System which contributed to its short life span.

Introduction

The Congress System had a short life span because of the inherent weaknesses within it. From its inception, the Congress System shoed that it was doomed, its downfall was inevitable. Great power politics rather principles governed the actions of the delegates at every congress and it was this that undid what seemed to be a good system if it had been properly followed.

The reasons for the collapse of the Congress System

-different ideologies-some wanted to stop revolutions
-They distrusted each other for instance France was admitted later she was vied as a possible enemy.
-differences over the policy of intervention in the domestic affairs of other states. Britain was against intervention while Austria, Russia and Prussia favoured the policy of intervention.
-there were no common aims e.g. at Aix-la-Chapelle, Alexander’s suggestions were rejected for example, disarmament and the formation of an international army. Also Britain did not help in the suppression of revolts in Spain; she did not attend the Congress of Troppau and Laibach in 1820 and 1821.
-Different forms of governments hence they could not agree on one thing e.g. on the terms of the Holy Alliance. Britain was a Constitutional Monarch and was thus bound to be sympathetic to revolutions while other powers such as Austria, Russia and Prussia were autocratic and thus hostile to revolutionary cause.
-Smaller powers were not represented like the Sultan and the Pope.
-they tried to suppress nationalism of which Napoleon 1 had raised this spirit and it could not be suppressed.
-The contribution of Canning of Britain-was greatly opposed to the Congress System. He destroyed the system by openly refusing to participate. He remarked “Things are coming to a wholesome state again, each man for himself and God for us all.”

Conclusion

After the above analysis one should clearly note that the Congress System did not last for a long time because the great powers had different ideologies. They could not agree on one thing. Distrust and self-interests were always evident in their congress. The situation was exacerbated by the coming to power of George Canning who damaged and ultimately killed the system. Thus, the Congress System could not last no more than ten years because of various factors.

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☆Outstanding leaders go out of their way to boost the selfesteem of their personnel. If people believe in themselves, it's amazing what they can accomplish.☆ -Sam Walton

Sunday, 11 September 2016

The School and Socialisation

How the school performs the function of socialization. through the curriculum, the school in a formal way provides the child with: Knowledge of basic intellectual skills such as reading, writing, verbal expression, quantitative and other cognitive abilities, Education teaches languages and allows people communicate with each other according to positions in society.
Cultural achievements of ones society. Opportunities to acquire social and vocational abilities which are necessary in order to make one a social, useful and economically productive member of the society. Gender roles as perceived as suitable roles by the society.
Educational systems socialize students to become members of society, to play meaningful roles in the complex network of independent positions. Education helps in shaping values and attitudes to the needs of the contemporary society.
Education widens the mental horizons of pupils and teaches them new ways of looking at themselves and their society.
Education offers young people opportunities for intellectual, emotional and social growth. Thus education can be influential in promoting new values and stimulating adaptation of changing conditions. Informally and especially through social clubs, the school enables the child to learn a number of other social roles and skills which are also important for his/ her overall development as a member of society.

For example;

Education teaches the laws, traditions and norms of the community, the rights that individuals will enjoy and the responsibilities that they will undertake.
Education teaches how one is to behave toward his/ her play- mates and adults.
Education teaches how to share things and ideas. Education teaches how to compete responsibly Schooling teaches how to cooperate Schooling instills the community's pattern of respect; thus how to relate to others well and obey rules.
Schooling enables one to intendize the culture of one's society. Education leads toward tolerant and humanitarian attitudes. For example, college graduates are expected to be more tolerant than (high school graduates in their attitudes toward ethenic and social groups.

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☆Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school. ☆-Albert Einstein

☆He who is not everyday conquering some fear has not learned the secret of life. ☆-Ralph Waldo Emerson

Prophetic schools

Prophetic Schools

A number of candidates find the issue of prophetic schools peculiar in the study of Divinity particularly the Old Testament. Hence, the following points are relevant for one to clearly understand this interesting topical issue.

Some scholars argue that Samuel was perhaps a father of a prophetic guild.
When he anointed Saul and told him to go and meet a band of prophets he was in fact referring Saul to the disciples that gathered around him, his "sons". ( 1 Samuel 10:1ff)
Immediately when Saul joined the ecstatic band of prophets the contagious spirit fell on him as one newly called and he too became ecstatic and began to prophesy.
However, a good example of a prophetic guild was the group headed by Elijah with Elijah as the Father and Elisha as the senior "son of the prophet" who eventually succeeded Elijah.
At least we are told that Elijah must have had sons of the prophet around him even though textual evidence points to the fact that they resided in Jericho which was not Elijah's place of residence (2 Kings 2:15ff).
We even are told that the guild was 50 strong perhaps excluding Elisha the senior son of the prophet (2 Kings 2:16).
We also learn that the sons of the prophet had families or at least wives and it seems the prophetic guild or at least the father of the school, was responsible for their welfare (2 Kings 4:1ff).
When Elijah was about to go to heaven he surrendered his cloak and a portion of his spirit to Elisha (even though Elisha demanded a double portion).
We witness here a typical succession process in a prophetic guild (2 kings 2).
The senior "son of the prophet" would have worked very closely to the father of the prophetic guild and would be quite prepared to lead the guild (Cf. 2 Kings 3:11b).
However, with Samuel it is not explicitly stated who were his sons or how many they were.
With Elijah and Elisha, especially with the latter, the phenomenon became clearly defined and more pronounced. We get explicit details regarding the sons of the prophets and what were their activities.
Right from the onset we are told that Elisha ministered with Gehazi who must have been the senior son of the prophet.
The other sons of the prophet are not known by their names but from what we observe from the textual references above they were quite many numbering up to about fifty or more.
They must have owned land or some property at least (2 Kings 6:1-2). They specialized in performing miracles through the father of the guild and the sons would watch while learning the secrets of performing miracles.
We do not have evidence of sons of the prophet performing miracles while the father of the guild was still in their midst suggesting that this must have been the task of the father of the guild.
Therefore, there is a sense in which we can say the prophetic guild was quite an organised social group with known numbers, a system of social welfare and maintenance and a clearly identifiable hierarchy.

More points can be added

▪Activity for Learners

Is the phenomenon of prophetic guilds identifiable in the Zimbabwe context? Give examples.

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Saturday, 10 September 2016

Education and ignorance

If you think education is expensive, try ignorance. -Derek Bok Share such beautiful quotes and sayings with this free app from your Android phone and tablet: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.internetdesignzone.quotes

Socrates on ignorance

There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance. -Socrates Share such beautiful quotes and sayings with this free app from your Android phone and tablet: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.internetdesignzone.quotes

The Congress System was doomed from the start. Discuss

“The Congress System was doomed from the start.” Discuss.
A number of candidates find questions on the Congress System challenging yet there is a better approach to tackle them. The following response makes the difference that students need to achieve higher grades.

Question Demands:
The main issue is an assessment of whether the Congress System showed any weaknesses during its initial period or it fell because of other factors which came later.

Affirmative side

-No agreement in the Quadruple Alliance. Britain agreed with the basic principles of maintaining the settlement of 1815 and to prevent the return of a Bonaparte on the throne but she never agreed with the principle of intervention in the affairs of other states.
-No seriousness in the signing of the Holy Alliance.
-Distrust amongst the Great Powers. After admitting France into the Quintuple Alliance, The Great powers secretly renewed the old Quadruple Alliance as a safeguard against her.
-Aix-la-Chapelle-Alexander 1 proposed his schemes but was blocked by Austria and Britain-showed the powers were not united.
-Different forms of governments-Britain was a constitutional monarchy hence was likely to be sympathetic to liberal and nationalist revolts. Others were autocratic hence wished to crush the liberal revolts.
-Congress System never captured the sympathy of European public opinion because it did not represent the interests of the small powers.
-the great powers were too reactionary hence were to find problems with the forces of change.

However

-Despite the above differences the Congress System surged on-had common agreements e.g. all major powers wanted to maintain peace and tranquility in Europe.
-It was doomed later because vital matters arose e.g. the Spanish, Italian and Greek revolts which presented difficulties to the powers. Also the Spanish colonies on which Britain could not possibly agree with other powers was another bone of contention among the powers.
-the rise of George Canning damaged the existence of the Congress System.

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Economic Structural Adjustment Programs (ESAP), Paper 5

Zimbabwe History Advanced level

Question. To what extent did the Economic Structural Programme (ESAP) achieved its objectives in Zimbabwe by the mid 1990s.

ESAP is a top-down economic strategy which is designed to resuscitate an economy using massive doses of foreign exchange (acquired mostly through loans) and hugely increased exports (David Coltart, 1992).

The idea being that the massive injection of foreign capital will enable domestic industry to re-gear itself and thereafter perpetuate economic recovery and growth by dramatically increasing export earnings, and therefore foreign earnings which in turn are used to repay the loans incurred to pay for the initial injection of capital and to build a healthy balance of payments situation for the future.

Due to economic failures, unemployment on the rise in the Zimbabwe government in especially in 1990s period efforts were made to make changes with the hope of bringing positive changes.
With the recommendations of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1991 the government of Zimbabwe adopted ESAP which is a market led reform programme.

The candidates need understand the objectives of ESAP in order to assess the extent to which the objectives were achieved by the mid 1990s.
These are the objectives of ESAP in the period 1991-1995;

•Ismi (2004) argues that the main aims of ESAP were privatization of public institutions, reducing trade tariffs and import duties (trade liberalization), eliminating foreign currency controls, removing protection for manufacturing sectors, de-regulating labour markets, lowering the minimum wage, ending employment security, cutting the fiscal deficit, reducing tax rate, and de-regulation.

• Achieve annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth of 5 percent
•Raise savings to 25 per cent of GDP
•Raise investments to 25 per cent of GDP
•Achieve export growth of 9 percent per annum
•Reduce the budget deficit from over 10 per cent of GDP to 5 per cent by 1995
•Reduce inflation from 17.7 per cent to 10 per cent by 1995

▪ Achievements

• The mining industry benefitted partly with monetary reforms, trade liberalisation and removal of investment controls. The removal of import permits ensured that inputs such as chemicals, spares for equipment and machinery, explosives and replacement capital were acquired more easily.
• Savings and investment ratios partially improved

In as much as the government had set the above objectives it however failed dismally to achieve these goals.The failures can be understood within socio-economic and political. The following failures have to be considered;

•Economic growth declined with annual inflation rising to 26.6 per cent
•Employment growth declined to 0.12 per cent
•Manufacturing sector’s share declined from an average 20.4 per cent to 16 per cent
•Many companies closed with retrenchments rampant.
•Levels of poverty increased and life expectancy declined due to cuts in social expenditure and implementation of cost-recovery programmes, especially the health sector. (Read Beyond the Enclave, 2012 on this topic)
•ESAP‟s trade liberalisation led to an upsurge of informal cross border trade Tekere (2001), as it was viewed as the only viable activity to generate income under the economic down turn as a result of the adjustment. Some traders also used unofficial routes leading to their numbers not captured in the national statistics. The liberalisation of exchange controls also perpetrated informal cross border trade.
•Droughts of 1991/2 adversely affected the ESAP initiatives like power station in Gokwe under Rio Tinto Zimbabwe which could have assisted livelihoods. Gold panning also affected some programmes in the mining sector

Question Demands

To a greater extent, ESAP was a failure.

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About the writer

Brian Maregedze is a Zimbabwean Christian Historian-Essayist and independent researcher. He can be contacted @ +263779210440 or the Facebook page Brian Maregedze

☆HISTORY IS CURRENT AFFAIRS☆- DR. V. G CHIVAURA (2015)

Friday, 9 September 2016

Genuine Pauline Letters (Apostolic Age)

Genuine Pauline Letters

These are undisputed Pauline epistles, undisputed in the sense that majority if not all well known New Testament Scholars are in agreement that these letters were written by Paul himself.

These letters are:
1 Thessalonians,
Galatians, 1 & 2 Corinthians,
Philemon, Philippians and Romans.

It is paramount to note that in the mid 60s and early 70s Colossians
was also listed among the genuine Pauline letters.
This was because this letter has some representation of Paul‟s ideology therefore they termed it “marginal” letter.
However, critical scholars such as R. Brown argue that 60% of Colossians does not reflect Paul hence it is not a marginal but a Deutero Pauline epistle.
It was also observed that Colossians and Ephesians have a closer affinity in terms of contents which can be described as “synoptic problem”.
Be that may, scholarship is concurrence that Colossians is closer than Ephesians to Paul in terms of dating hence the writer of Ephesians might have copied Colossians.
It is crystal clear again that Ephesians is larger than Colossians therefore Ephesians might be an expanded version of Colossians.
2 Thessalonians also appear to be similar to these two in problems raised but the response is so different which made scholars to agree that the writer is a loner.
Colossians and Ephesians are dated between 70AD - 80AD – 90AD, but Pastoral letters are dated after 90AD.
Paul disappeared from scene around 60AD which made scholars unanimously agree that Pastoral letters were not in any way written by Paul.
Scholarship however concur that Pastoral letters were written by Paul's companions because they are in many ways in line
with Paul's thought patens

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Wednesday, 7 September 2016

Methods of Studying the New Testament (Gospels): Form Criticism

Methods of Studying the New Testament :Form Criticism

Form criticism of the New Testament has two aims.
(1) To classify the various New Testament books according to their literary genre.
(2) To analyze the smaller units of traditional material according to the form or shape they have assumed during the oral, preliterary period.
The German word formgeschichte (form-history) is often used in a broader sense with reference to attempts to trace the development of units of tradition during the oral period and thus to make historical value judgment on the material.

Historical Background of the Material.

Form-critical methods were first applied systematically to the gospels by three German scholars namely,
~ K.L Schmidt,
~ M. Dibelius, and
~R. Bultmann.
Here are some axioms of form criticism.
• The synoptic gospels are popular or folk literature rather than literary works in the classical sense.
According to Dibelius, ―the evangelists are only to the smallest extent authors.
They are principally collectors, vehicles of tradition, and editors‖ evangelists were not historians employing modern methods of research, but receivers and transmitters of traditions cherished by Christian communities.
• Between the time of Jesus’ ministry and the writing of the gospels
there was a period when the sayings of Jesus and stories about him
were communicated orally among Christians.
• During this oral period the traditions about Jesus circulated as independent units. This is why when we look, for example, Mark: 2: 1- 3:6, we find a collection of short paragraphs, each complete in itself and with no essential connection with what precedes or follows.

During the oral stage these units of tradition assumed particular
forms according to the function which they performed in the Christian community.
Form critics recognize certain forms or categories in the gospel tradition-such as pronouncement-and miracle stories.
These distinctive forms are no creation of accident or free invention, but are determined by the setting in which they arose and the purpose for which they were used.
The technical term used for this setting is Sitz-im-leben(Life-setting). So stories about Jesus acquired different forms or shapes according to their sitz-im-leben.
Thus form critics claim the ability to deduce the sitz-im-leben of a gospel pericope from its form.
If we find several pericopae with the same form, we may assume that they all had the same Sitz-im-leben, i.e., they all performed the same function in the church‘s life, whether it be worship or apologetic or catechesis or some function.

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☆ It is not the answer which enlightens but the question☆ author unknown

Tuesday, 6 September 2016

History Reflection

Knowledge makes a man unfit to be a Slave~Frederick Douglass

Compare and contrast any two examples of opposition to colonial rule in East and Central Africa between 1885 and 1914.

Question Demands

The various kinds of opposition to colonial rule should form the basis of this answer, requiring some definition/overview of terms:
violent/non-violent post-pacification resistance movements; secondary resistance; religious protest.
The two examples need not be from different regions. Responses could use the events of a resistance movement, or personalities involved in it, to address ‘compare’ and ‘contrast.’
On the other hand, they could identify points of comparison by type, for example a primary and a secondary post-pacification revolt.

General types of resistance movements:

• Violent post-pacification primary resistance movements e.g. the Hehe rebellion of the 1890s, the Chi Murenga of the Ndebele-Shona 1896–7; the Maji-Maji Rising 1905–7; the Giriama Rising in British East Africa 1914–15.

• Non-violent post-pacification primary resistance movements – one example of this type is the Kyanyangire revolt in Bunyoro, Western Uganda in 1907, but there is also the mass migration type of resistance.

• Secondary resistance movements – for example John Chilembwe’s rebellion in Malawi in 1915 (with its origins within the period of this paper).

• Forms of religious protest were seen in the rise of the Independent African Church Movement as a protest against the reluctance of European Christian missions to share control and leadership with Africans.
There is overlap here with other types of resistance – e.g. John Chilembwe’s movement, and the Christian missions providing the education which led to secondary resistance movements.

Courtsey of Cambridge International.

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Prophet Magaya and Wife Dancing

Monday, 5 September 2016

Essay Introduction Sample: European History, French Revolution

Question
"Louis xvi's blunders contributed to the outbreak of the French Revolution". How valid is this assertion

Louis xvi's blunders relates and or refers to the errors, flaws, wrong decisions as well as miscalculations made in an attempt to address and curb the financial crisis in France. Some of the blunders made by Louis xvi as the absolute King of France include the involvement of the French troops in the American war of independence, firing able finance ministers, demonstrating indecisiveness on the taxation issue among others. However, it has to be observed that other factors which were within France contributed directly or indirectly to the outbreak of the French revolution such as the Influence of French Philosophers, the poor harvests of 1788-9 to mention only these among many. Hence, this essay seeks to analyse the validity of the above assertion.

About the Writer

Brian Maregedze is a Zimbabwean Christian Historian-essayist and independent researcher.

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☆It is not the answer which enlightens but the question☆- author unknown

Buganda State Notes

Background

Prior to 1650, she was one of the small independent lineages in the interlacanstrine region.
The class had a generally wide influence over its members. The period from approximately 1600 – 1800 was characterized the following:
- Firstly, by territorial expansion
- Secondly, it was marked by administration consolidation
- Thirdly, the increasing importance in military system
- Fourthly, the beginning of centralized political structures.
Buganda was located on the north-western area of Lake Victoria in a region that was very fertile. The introduction of bananas gave the people of Buganda a source of food well- suited to their geographical environment.
Since bananas provide a high yield for comparatively less input in terms of work, general food production was left for women. Men were freed form production activities so that they could be readily available or military activities.
However in other states like Bunyoro, Bunganda's rival, men played an important role in the agricultural sector and responsible for herding cattle, clearing the land for fields and even till the land.

Baganda purposely embarked on a culture of ridiculing Banyoro. They began by claiming that Kato-Kimera was a child sired by a Muganda prince, Kalemeera whom, they allege, mysteriously landed at the Omukama of Bunyoro-Kitara's palace, tip- toed into the palace compound and made love to Omukama's Omugo(Queen) thereby impregnating her to produce Kato-Kimera.
Banyoro consider this allegation an insult to them. It annoys them greatly, aggravating the already sour relations.
Baganda history writers are confused telling an untrue story of Kato-Kimera's birth. They find it difficult and embarrassing to piece together an unbelievable, incoherent story on how Kato-Kimera was borne of the Omugo of Bunyoro-Kitara, brought up in the palace and how he was smuggled out to land in Muhwahwa.
However, the accurate story, as told by elders whom imminent Munyoro historian, John Nyakatuura quotes, say that prince Kato was a true twin brother of Isingoma Mpuuga Rukidi, borne of the same Luo mother, Nyatworo. The twins were collected together, four brothers, and their elder brother, Isingoma Mpuuga Rukidi, crowned the first Mubiito king of Bunyoro-Kitara.
On being assigned the chieftainship of Muhwahwa Kato went with the intention to rebel. He carried with him the kingdom's regalia, a drum called Mujaguzo, which is today still present at Mengo.
He took with him many Banyoro citizens who founded the Engabi clan.
Distorting Kato-Kimera's Bunyoro origins, indeed using it to redicule Bunyoro royalty, is one of the symptoms of continued bad relations between Banyoro and Baganda. As the 19th century closed and the new one started, Baganda emebarked on a culture of downplaying Banyoro. They ridiculed them by referring to them as backward, uncivilized, uneducated, social misfits etc, In Buganda society a Munyoro was held next to a sub-human being. A Munyoro could never perform anything good. If he did anything good it was always said he had imitated a Muganda. Baganda children were groomed to humiliate and always downplay Banyoro. Hence 10-year Baganda children openly referred to Banyoro as, "Banamawanga" (strangers).

More notes to follow.......,
Enjoy your studies.

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☆It is not the answer which enlightens but the question☆- author unknown

Saturday, 3 September 2016

Robespierre: An Assessment of his Importance in the French Revolution

Assess the importance of Robespierre in the French Revolution.

#A number of students find the personality of Robespierre more interesting to discuss about in street talk yet they find it challenging to respond to questions in essay format on the same individual.
# The following article is an attempt to make it as 'simple as possible but not simpler ' (Albert Einstein) in assessing Robespierre's role and contributions in the French Revolution.

To some Robespierre has variously been labelled as 'Master and Victim of terror', 'Champion of Virtue', 'the incorruptible and no lover of women', and his leadership style as clear exibit for extreme Dictatorship among others. In as much as there are varying views on this personality one needs to have a clear balanced approach towards the question under study.
Robespierre, who led the Jacobins and the National Convention from 1793-1794, looms high in the history of the French Revolution. He left a remarkable impression on the history of Europe in general and France in particular. His contribution was seen in preserving the revolutionary ideals from both internal and external foes. While his contribution is mostly positive, he also had undermined the progress of the revolution in one way or the other.

Affirmative side

a) He used the ‘reign of terror’/ repression in trying to save the revolution i.e. he executed the enemies of the revolution. When people were killed those remaining decided either to support the revolution or to remain quiet.

b) He reorganized the army under the leadership of General Carnot. This meant that mob violence was quelled.

c) He also used different forms of propaganda. This was done by misinforming the people. For instance, their motto was “If one is an enemy of the revolution, one is an enemy of the state.” Because of this, people did not want to be seen as enemies of their own state and therefore they were forced to support the revolution.

d) He introduced moderate reforms eg regulation of bread prices and introduction of technical education.

e) Robespierre took advantage of rivalries between the allied powers i.e. Austria and Russia, Austria and Prussia vs Britain.

f) Robespierre also harnessed the resources of the revolution for war time use e.g. the levee en masse.

g) Robespierre also introduced specialization of labour. Specialized protected the revolution because some were specialized in industries while others were in war and this made the people not to be tired.

h) He aroused the spirit of nationalism among the soldiers. As a result of being nationalistic, the French soldiers fought with great zeal as opposed to the grand soldiers of the monarchy who were forced to fight.

I) With the help of the National Convention, Robespierre completed the destruction of feudal regime by establishing a uniform system of weights and measurements.

j) He also began some educational reforms. He promoted technical instruction by founding the technical colleges. Laws providing for the opening of one or more schools in each canton were passed thereby laying the foundation of the public school system. It was left to the Directory however to carry out these laws.

k) he was able to make France the dominant power in Europe.

l) Together with the National Convention, they rendered notable services to the future of France by completing the destruction of the feudal regime, by establishing a uniform system of weights and measures (metric system) which was later adopted by other countries.

m) As leader of the National Convention, he started the work of preparing a uniform code of law for France (a task which Napoleon Bonaparte was to finish and which he was to gunner the credit)
n) He created the National Archives, the museum of the Louvre and the National Library

However

-price regulations became extreme and destroyed industries
-traces of bloodshed and terror-“the revolution was now devouring its own children through mass executions” (D. Thomson)
-many people suffered through his policies. The Law of Suspect being a typical example as well as the use of the most brutal means ie the Guillotine
-indirectly fought against the same ideals he claimed to be advocating for. For instance under his reign there was Universal Conscription in the army which is a direct infringement of human rights especially in decision making.
-Psychologically, humanity lost its values. Never ever in the history of France had people witnessed celebrations of mass killing.
-Religious fanaticism was now rampant to almost the extinction of tolerance in France

Conclusion
It is clear from the assessment above that Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobins and National Convention, indeed played a pivotal role in the history of the French Revolution. Though he left reminiscences of bloodshed and terror, he also left entries on the credit side of the ledger as R. Ergang has pointed out. In short, the bad aspects of his administration were overshadowed by the good aspects, especially his ability to save the revolution from both internal and external forces. What Robespierre achieved was more of for the greater good and necessary for the French people.

Question Demands

The key issue is an assessment of the positive as well as the negative roles of Robespierre in the French Revolution.

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☆It is not the answer which enlightens but the question☆-author unknown

Friday, 30 September 2016

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