The Historian Orator- Mr Muso

By Brian Maregedze
The pedagogue of History and historiography from primary to tertiary level remains an indispensable facet in our everyday life not only in Zimbabwe, but, the world over. To some, history as a subject is pursued for the acquisition of knowledge(s) in a way to uphold the heritage of a people. Three years ago at a High school Seminar organized by Advocate Arthur Marara in Harare, l met with the Historian Orator, Manners Msongelwa a.k.a Mr Muso. With Mr Muso, the learning of History is not only for fulfilling public examinations demands but for everyday living and sharing of long lasting memories. It is no wonder in his social media circles, Mr Muso offers reading material whenever possible and yes, as a teacher by heart, he also belongs to the pioneers of the History Teachers Association. Mr Muso is currently the President of History Teachers Association of Zimbabwe. An interesting dimension added to his work ethic is that of inspiring his students with a strong moral ethic as a foundation to excel in all academic and life endeavors. It is on this accord that it is paramount to pay a tribute to his contribution. Moreover, it is imperative to acknowledge his genuine intellectual role in building a primary source of understanding our past, reclaiming its significance in the present to map the future.
We are living in a swiftly transfiguring world such that emphasis on historical teaching seems in some circles to be trivialized. During the first generation of Zimbabwe’s independence, the learning of history has undergone various transformations. The major being the introduction of the New Curriculum as per recommendations from the Nziramasanga Commission which sought to ground the education system in Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKSs). The Hillside trained teacher, Mr Muso, has made an inspiring initiative from which learning of history goes beyond the vicinity of school yard. The pedagogue of history has been made easy since Mr Muso created History audios and video learning material covering a miscellany of both African History and Regional and International Affairs topical issues. The audios and video learning material are also affordable such that everyone interested in learning History can buy and access them without any obstacle countrywide. This is in sync with global trends in embracing information communication technologies (ICTs) in the education sector.
More interesting is how Mr Muso has revived the ‘Von Rankian’ Seminar approach to the learning of History at high school in a way that he has become the Historian Orator of the New Curriculum. Based on high school History Seminars I have since attended since with Mr Muso as the Host Speaker, it is undeniable that his indefatigable oratory skill and engaging energetic stance distinguishes him to stand among the best speakers that learners enjoy having around. With his reverberating tone when delivering lessons, testimonies of students on his credence aloft. Beyond the comforts of home in Kwekwe were he is based, Mr Muso will be taking two weeks in Harare at Career Management Centre, located at Corner Jason Moyo and Leopold Takawira delivering elevating History lessons for advanced levels. His lessons commence on 17 December 2018 to January 2019. In celebrating the Historian Orator- Mr Muso.

Brian Maregedze is an author, historian and columnist. Author of; A Guide to Sources of African History: For Advanced Level Examination Candidates, 2018. https://www.amazon.com/Guide-Sources-African-History-Examination/dp/1985640600,  Link to the e-book. Researcher with Leaders for Africa Network (LAN), a Pan African think tank. Membership with Zimbabwe Historical Association [ZHA]. Comments, email; bmaregedze@gmail.com

Curtains: an anthology of poems

The Harare based poet and author, Takunda Chikomo made his first contribution to poetry with Curtains: an anthology of poems, published by TafaPrint Publishers Zimbabwe, 2018. Takunda recently finished his advanced level studies at Seke 5 High School in Chitungwiza where he was pursuing humanities related subjects.  Reading through Curtains, memories of high school days are ignited with teenage experiences well recorded from the poet's experiences. Love stories from a teenage gaze dominate the poems in Curtains whilst dreams, fantasies, hopes and longings for the unknown future form another part of the book.

There are over fifty poems in this 94 page book. Re-arranging the poems into themes or sections of related poems seemed not an issue to the author. As such, the titles of the poems are readable and capture essentials raised in the whole book. The first poem titled, Pretense takes one into the life of the author, reflecting on deception among young couples mainly the girl as the victim. The poem could be used as an eye-opener to unsuspecting young ladies who, according to the author, easily fall for people who may end up hurting them. Takunda moves on to the experiences of a workaholic and how this negatively affects the family set up. 

The Pastor who is also the father of the house in the poem successfully preaches and teaches to his congregation, only to disappoint at home. The busy schedule the Pastor has leads to loneliness and lack of parental guidance at home. At the end, it is an appeal to church leaders in a Christian set up not to forget their families despite their busy schedules which may demand them to be far from home. 

Single and not searching, captures campus life by young adults. The peer pressure associated with campus life, wanting to do what everyone is doing- being in a relationship. More interesting is how the author, in spite of the temptations to follow others, ends up listening to his heart, to the inner person. The inner person tells the author that he was not ready for any relationship but rather to exploit his energies on other activities.

Confirmation of my fears grapples with a young men in love with a young girl whom he waits for expecting to tell her at the right time. Unfortunately, the girl did not wait but eloped and later on got married. All these narratives and others point to high school memories, experiences of heartbreaks, disappointments, denial [Poem to my Crush], fantasies, hopes, pride [Manly Pride], and in some cases dreams that the young teenagers encounter.

A poetic obituary to Tino who is a 'loved-one' is also well written. Although Takunda in the preface to the anthology argues that all characters are fictional, it is impossible to agree with him since the whole book testifies to real-life experiences. When I Die, captures contemporary events in Zimbabwe; 
So, I spoke about the infamous
Game of thrones
But yet still politics will just make you
A white city target
You never know where you end…(p.40)
The July 2018 presidential elections in Zimbabwe witnessed an attempt on His Excellency, president Emmerson D. Mnangagwa's life in Bulawayo, White City stadium. Game of Thrones a popular western movie was used in social media daily discourse from which people were eager to explain the White City bombing. Implicit allusions can be extracted from the lines of the poem.

In addition to that, the death of a heroine, Winnie Mandela in South Africa could perhaps have seen the author influenced by Julius Malema's speech, Mama-Give us a signal. Signals; is a poem from which the young author weaves in morality questions, implicitly confronting Christianity versus African traditional religion. Cultural encounters, reflecting on the imperatives of v*rginity and modernity seem to confuse the author in some instances. P*rnography is another vice which the author reflects on as technology and growing up demand wise decisions. In a way to problematize the meanings attached to p*rnography on morality, the author posits a situation where there is what he calls a 'dream code.' This could possibly relate to sweet dreams and teenagers growing up. Mama, is used now and again when dealing with all these aspects that confront the young people. 

The genius in Takunda Chikomo's writing emanates from his ability to explore his experiences into poetic writing. At the age of eighteen and within 2018, another upcoming book from Takunda titled, These things also happened to me, is already waiting for publication. I do believe the hand of editorial services will immensely improve his upcoming book. Above all, the book is a must read for all parents and young people. In as much church leaders, teachers are explicitly identified in their approach to the young generation, it is undeniable the book appeals to all people.
 
Brian Maregedze is a researcher with Leaders for Africa Network [LAN] and Zimbabwe Historical Association [ZHA]). Comments; bmaregedze@gmail.com

The Cult of Rhodes: Remembering an Imperialist in Africa

Reviewed by Brian Maregedze

Cecil John Rhodes (1853-1902) remains a controversial figure in colonialism and imperialism studies. Paul Maylam’s 2005 publication is useful in confronting debates on his role in the colonization of Southern Africa-South Africa and Zimbabwe being well studied. The book by Maylam, although published over a decade ago, is worth reading since in Zimbabwe and South Africa, the place of Rhodes in decolonization remains a contested terrain in academic and non-academic circles. In as much as the book is grounded in exposing the evils of Cecil John Rhodes to a greater extent upon Africans, arguments for Rhodes’ apologists are posited. The six chapters which make up the book make it an easy read due to the readable approach undertaken by Maylam, considering that Rhodes belongs those individuals with a lot of literature devoted to his personality.
The introductory chapter situates Rhodes within debates on biographies which celebrated and condemned him. Three key features on biographers of Rhodes are well noted, namely, the early biographies being written by close associates or acquaintances such as Sir Thomas Fuller, Sir Lewis Michell, Philip Jourdan, J.G McDonald and Herbert Baker, among others. The second category includes writings from professional, academic historians, namely, Basil Williams, John Flint, Apollon Davidson and Robert Rotberg. The last and third group consists of reputable writers who were however not professional historians such as Sarah Getrude Millin, William Plomer and Andre Maurois. J.G Lockhart and C.M Woodhouse, John Marlowe and Brian Roberts targeted a wider audience (p.4).
The second chapter grapples with monuments and memorials on Rhodes. Tracing from Rhodes’ birthplace, Cape Town estate, place of death and grave, Maylam, takes one into the history associated with each of these sites. The chapter is more interesting in that, according to Rhodes’ will, Matopos in Zimbabwe is his place of burial. Drawing from the late T.O Ranger’s works, Maylam demonstrates how Matopos remains a contested space due to Rhodes’ burial side by side with Mzilikazi. The chapter ends by a focus on memorial sites in South Africa.
The third chapter addresses Rhodes’ education and commemoration. Rhodes’ legacies are noted in his scholarships, names of places after him and in some cases, connections with his name. Rhodes University in South Africa, Oriel College- a major beneficiary of Rhodes’ will and more notable being Oxford, with more memorials on Rhodes (p.78). In some cases, Rhodes’ obsession is viewed in the way he made efforts to falsely claim that Great Zimbabwe to be an ancient, exotic civilization.  Rhodes scholarships remain much alive in twenty-first century and regarded as the most famous educational award in the English-speaking world and the most prestigious student award in the USA (p.78). Although the Rhodes scholarship is viewed in that light, recently in Zimbabwe, Augustine Tirivangana (2018) in The Patriot Zimbabwe newspaper has made efforts to revive discussions on Rhodes scholarships in a context of Munhu Munhu Scholarships Programme 2019 which targets to support lesbians, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (and queer) individuals between 18-35 years. Degree programmes to be pursued include, democracy, governance, justice, human rights and conflict resolution strategies. It is notable from Maylam’s book that, contradictions and ironies exist on the criteria for selection of the scholarships.  After Rhodes’ death, changes on what Rhodes wanted took shape which the book unpacks.
In chapter four, the discussion on whether Rhodes was a ‘hero or villain’ is set out relying on novels and films about him. Three classical works critical of Rhodes in the form of novels are dealt with, namely, Mr Magnus written by Francis R. Statham; Peter Halket by Schreiner and also The Colossus: A Story of To-day by Morley Roberts. Plays on Rhodes are also addressed, that is, The Fall by Anthony Delius; Ancestors and Diamonds by Michael Picardie; King of Diamonds by Harold Laite among many other films. This chapter is engaging in that there is analysis beyond ‘hero or villain’ dichotomies.
Chapter five focuses on why Rhodes matters, that is, the biographies, road to cultdom, Rhodes Trust and the striving for immortality. Finally, with chapter six, Maylam explicitly demonstrates his position on Cecil John Rhodes articulating  that he was more of a curse than a blessing to Southern Africa especially the formerly colonized countries under the influence of his British South Africa Company (BSAC). The establishment of Mandela Rhodes Foundation creates another avenue from which the memory of Rhodes ignited debates among historians, and interested researchers. From the various narratives engaged, Rhodes’ imperialism always gained prominence, the figure of a ruthless colonizer and a cultural chauvinist portrayed with the theme of ecological imperialist emerging as another unexplored issue from which further research is necessary.
However, Maylam doesn’t offer a detailed analysis of the whole body of works on Rhodes as he scantily summaries major works. Nonetheless, the book is a must  read for those interested in the history of imperialism, the initiated and uninitiated in historical studies who seek an overview of many academic and non-academic works on Cecil John Rhodes. Above all, the context from which the book was written make it relevant as the wave of decolonization of space, names and re-naming of landscapes are still topical not only in South Africa and Zimbabwe, but globally, in imperial historical studies.

Brian Maregedze is an author, historian and columnist. Researcher with Leaders for Africa Network (LAN), a Pan-African research think tank and membership with Zimbabwe Historical Association [ZHA]. Email; bmaregedze@gmail.com
Author of; A Guide to Sources of African History: For Advanced Level Examination Candidates, 2018. https://www.amazon.com/Guide-Sources-African-History-Examination/dp/1985640600,  Link to the e-book.

A year after Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwean politics appear to have changed due to the media reportage of the past twelve months since Robert Mugabe’s ouster in the political scene. The question of a new Zimbabwe in the name of the new dispensation has been posited in various platforms. Some of the key aspects of Robert Mugabe’s remnants include, deteriorating economic challenges, corruption as a power retention strategy, political violence, gender imbalance in political representation, the land question, weak opposition parties, divide and rule strategy used by the ruling party, manifestations of a corrupt civil society as well as militarized state institutions. However, some positive steps can be identified, although of less significance such as calls for re-engagement with the international community, de-demonisation taking shape particularly on relations between Zimbabwe and Britain, media pluralism in the face of elections. Although such positives can be noted, l argue that Zimbabwe’s case is that of the old adage, ‘new wine in old bottles.’ Robert Mugabe was ousted by the military action code-named ‘Operation Restore Legacy’ in November 2017.

Economic crisis

There has not been positive strides on daily living for ordinary citizens in Zimbabwe. Prices of basic commodities have continued to escalate despite promises of a better Zimbabwe by those in power. With ‘the not so coup, coup of November 2017’ in Zimbabwe which led to the ouster of the former long-time serving President, Robert Mugabe, expectations for better living standards were high among Zimbabweans. Nothing positive has been said in relation to stabilizing the economy by the current government as they are much into promises using the old style of mega billion dollar projects. According to the Zimbabwesituation.com of 22 June 2018, indications were that the cash crisis in Zimbabwe was still in intensive care as the introduction of plastic money was not enough.

Corruption

The level of corruption in Zimbabwe in all spheres of life has been legendary. Almost every member of the new dispensation has had one way or the other been involved on corrupt activities. Questions raised by the public have been more to do with how the new government would confront the challenge of corruption. The toothless bull dog, Zimbabwe Anti-Corruption Commissioned (ZACC) did not in any way led arrests of anyone. The story of the corrupt Wicknel Chivayo, the contentious missing 15 billion of the Mugabe era, Supa Mandiwanzira scandals among others are such clear cases that the new government could have done some steps into bringing sanity and hope to Zimbabweans. It can be observed that reluctance by the new dispensation leaders to face corruption cases head on raises eye brose. Is Emmmerson Mnagagwa using Robert Mugabe’s strategy for power retention?

Political violence

Zimbabwe has been known to have culture of violence particularly in light of its national elections. Various media reports indicate that political leaders have been jostling for power from all political divides. Unlike during Robert Mugabe’s reign where his party and MDC Tsvangirai led party were popular for political violence, the new dispensation has all parties involved. Despite pledging for peace in the 2018 elections, uncertainty among observers was the order of the day. The 2008 elections were initially held in a harmonized manner but the re-run became disastrous with the military pledging not to accept any leader without military credentials. The 27 June 2008 memories have not been addressed at national level such that, the Emmerson Mnangagwa is doubted on the plausibility of peaceful elections. The 1 August 2018 shootings after the elections in Zimbabwe have been used by critics of the new dispensation that nothing has changed from the system.

Gender Imbalance

Zimbabwe’s national politics has generally been patriarchal with little space for women political players. The way Joice Mujuru was ousted in 2014 as a vice president raised a lot of issues as her liberation war achievements were re-questioned by the predominantly male leaders. Thokozani Khupe, the current leader of MDC-T has been facing the same challenge in the opposition political field. Reports have also shown how she was labelled in bad light due to her efforts to see constitutionalism addressed with her succession dispute with the MDC Alliance leader Nelson Chamisa. Having noted that, there were only three female presidential candidates out of the twenty three campaigning for the presidential office. This in a way shows how the new dispensation has not yet moved steps away from Robert Mugabe’s way. The fact that women are shamed in political circles shows a society that still needs to shift from the past thirty seven years of illusion in light of involvement of women in national politics. Blessing Miles-Tendi (2016) described that as rotten political culture which derails democracy and as it appears in Zimbabwe, he was accurate.

Land question?

With the language of re-engagement, no tangible results have materialized since Robert Mugabe was radical on the land debate. All political parties only hinted on promising to compensate some white farmers who lost land during the controversial land reform programme which took shape during the Mugabe era. The land issue if addressed also allows room for removal of many ZANU PF leaders from the imposed economic sanctions by the United States of America and its western allies. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) will also open its credit facilities to Zimbabwe. The land issue was made constitutional and irreversible in 2013 and as such it remains a contentious issue as there is divided opinion on the way forward. Ian Scoones an academic on land and land agrarian debates in Africa, using his Zimbabweland blogging site aptly details how Zimbabwe’s land question is not clear as presented by the main political parties.

Weak opposition parties

During Robert Mugabe’s era, many reasons have been proffered as to why he remained in power for so long. One notable example despite his repressive laws and practices had been weak opposition parties. From Edgar Tekere who was popular for condemning corruption and luxurious lifestyle in the late 1980s by political leaders later on found himself within the same situation. The legacy of succession left by the late Richard Morgan Tsvangirai has continued to haunt their party as it has been divided with Nelson Chamisa emerging as an heir to the presidential post. Thokozani Khupe has also a stake in the struggle, now leading using the MDC-T brand name.  Such a scenario offers the current government an opportunity to win against a divided opposition party if managed well. Although Emmerson Mnangagwa is leading with his old horses, he has a merit of having proper structures nationally unlike the opposition parties. Despite yearning for change, it appears some of the opposition candidates are a joke. The National Constituency Assembly (NCA) President, Professor Lovemore Madhuku was open that he was not targeting the presidential office in July 2018 but claimed to be use it as a rehearsal for the next elections (1 July 2018,Sunday News). Be that as it may, Zimbabwe has a divided weak opposition party compared to the main contender ZANU PF.

Corrupt Civil Society

It has been generally the norm that the civil society has been criticized by some local Zimbabwe outlets as agencies of the regime change agenda. However, recently, new evidence of embezzlement of funds has led to withdrawal of funds by the international community. This adversely affects the opposition parties as they relied on reports from such organizations in confronting issues of political violence and human rights. Examples which have been seriously dealt with by Golden Guvamatanga of the Patriot Zimbabwe newspaper (5 July 2018) include the Zimbabwe Human Rights Association (ZimRights), Counselling Service Unit (CSU), Election Resource Centre (ERC) and Grace for Peace.
Militarization of state institutions
Complaints have been raised by members of the public and opposition parties pertaining the independent body with the mandate to deal with elections in Zimbabwe. Mainly noted is the way retired uniformed forces have jobs, working for Zimbabwe Electoral Commission (ZEC). More so, working in government parastatals has also created tension among people in Zimbabwe describing that as the militarization of the state. This however, is argued to lead into a compromise as the current Vice President Retired General Constantino Chiwenga has been known to declare that he would not salute anyone with no liberation war credentials. In as much as Robert Mugabe was known for arguing that, “our votes are our guns”, in some occasions the opposite has been found to be true. Worse still the military intervention in November 2017 in the executive has led academics such as Ibbo Mandaza and the law expert Alex Magaisa to argue that this was a military coup led government. In that regard, prior to elections, fears for a repetition of such a scenario in case Emmerson Mnangagwa failed to win led to uncertainties about claims of the new dispensation. These elections were thus a way to find legitimacy from the people as well as the international community. The recent pledge made by the Zimbabwe Defense Forces to abide by the constitution left more issues unanswered as political analysts observed that it was way of creating a positive image for the army with no real intentions to do what they preach. It came as no surprise on 1 August, as shootings in Harare (capital city of Zimbabwe) proved that indeed, the critics were prophetic.

Populism

The use of political rhetoric rather than practical possible policies has continued to haunt Zimbabwe from all political fronts.  The ‘politics of sloganeering’ has been Robert Mugabe’s strategy from the colonial period until his demise in the political landscape. Nkosana Moyo a presidential contender seems to stand alone in light of this type of politics. However, he remains at the periphery of the Zimbabwe populace in relation to focus on his policies. Emmerson Mnangagwa and Nelson Chamisa are the main contestants who are popular to Zimbabweans. Wherever Nelson Chamisa is, that is where the MDC Alliance goes. Proper structures have proved problematic. In the ruling party ZANU PF, reports indicate that there is no way forward on Robert Mugabe’s party regalia which numbers around five million. In terms of perpetuation of party ideology, the Emmerson Mnangagwa administration has been clear such that their, “Zimbabwe is open for business mantra” echoes the 2013 noise of 2.2 million jobs which did not materialize. “God is in it” adage has also been popularized in the MDC Alliance camp thereby adding to the Mugabe style of leadership and it has also become synonymous with his, “Zimbabwe will never be a colony again”, “Blare keep your England and let me keep my Zimbabwe” among others. “God is in it” has replaced the “Mugabe Must Go” mantra which was popular during the late Richard Morgan Tsvangirai’s tenure. There is need to have politics which delves into everyday struggles of the people rather than wasting time in sloganeering.

Succession Dilemma

The same problem that the opposition parties claimed to redress particularly on succession issues during Mugabe era and following the rule of law within their respective parties remains a critical issue. Morgan Tsvangirai left a legacy which left his party developing into a factional zone. Although Richard Morgan Tsvangirai was viewed as a doyen of Zimbabwean democracy by his fanatical followers he also overstayed in power to the extent of dying without resolving who would take up the presidential post after he was gone. Engineer Mudzuri, Thokozani Khupe and Nelson Chamisa are products of Richard Morgan Tsvangirai’s political blunders. On the same note, just like Robert Mugabe he faced his fate on 21 November 2017 due to his dictatorial tendencies by having centralized powers within his party and government. Mugabeism as it has been called in academic circles still haunts Zimbabwe although they are efforts to move on as a country.
However, notable strides have been on paper with the new dispensation in Zimbabwe. Some of them include doing away with partisan politics which saw chiefs campaigning for political parties. During Robert Mugabe’s reign, chiefs would play a part in mobilizing the electorate for ZANU PF which was unconstitutional. Worse still, using school transport and students to attend political rallies has also been legally put down. Such positives give merits to the new dispensation which is claiming to have a reformed approach.

Again in terms of international relations, re-engagement rather than isolationist policies have been adopted by Emmerson Mnangagwa. Efforts to cut spending by government has been observed to the extent of risking the whole executives’ lives when an explosion occurred at White City Stadium in Bulawayo at a political rally. Security personnel were reduced especially who go for manning the space prior to rallies. In that way, the current president “ED administration” has tried to show a difference rather than pursue the extravagance of his predecessor. 
The opposition political parties have been offered with equal media coverage unlike before. This has however been treated critically as people still have memories of 27 June 2008 elections which claimed lives. Using History to serve ZANU PF‘s purpose has been another challenge as wounds of the Matabeleland disturbances have been unattended to with the “bygones be bygones” mantra adopted by Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa. Although, a reconciliation platform is being set up, there seem to be lack of information pertaining to such issues which have haunted Zimbabweans over a long time.
All in all, it can be observed that remnants of Robert Mugabe are still fresh and notable as highlighted above. To Wananchi aka Tendai Biti interpreted this as ‘a dream hijacked.’ This is ‘new wine in old bottles’ and or what others have termed a hyena taking care of a goat, an African figurative expression explaining that, old habits die hard. On the contrary some are optimistic of the new dispensation as the dawn of a new Zimbabwe.

Brian Maregedze is a Zimbabwean historian, author and columnist.
Feedback; email bmaregedze@gmail.com

Learning Factory: studying History and modern technology

By Brian Maregedze

To those studying History at advanced level, there is a way of learning History using the most convenient way made possible. Manners Msongelwa, the current president for the Zimbabwe History Teachers Association now disseminates History notes using portable CDs.

The CDs are currently sold at $3.00 only. The eloquent teacher, Manners Msongelwa a.k.a Mr Muso as he is popularly known, offers insightful analysis on Regional and International Affairs topics. Using social media platforms such as WhatsApp and YouTube, it is easy to follow up Mr Muso’s History lessons.
Multi-media based instruction can be efficient and effective for three reasons (Issa, Cox & Killingsworth, 1999):
It is self-paced learning: the individualized pace of the learning allows students to break down the group instructional setting, which often inhibits some people’s natural progression (West & Crook, 1992).
It includes autonomy in the learning process: self-regulated instruction shifts the sense of responsibility from the instructor to the student and
It includes video/audio production, enhancing a learner’s interaction with the course material through less bridging effort between the learner and the information being processed.

Learning from a professional teacher is always engaging and this is different from any other source of information found on social media. Mr Muso is a game changer in the learning of History at advanced level.

For information, I encourage History teachers and students, as well as those with passion for History as a subject to Call/App +263 717 453 073 or +263 717 453 080. Web: www.study.co.zw or email; info@learningfactory.co.zw

Brian Maregedze is a Research Associate with Leaders for Africa Network (LAN), a Pan African think tank. Professional membership: Zimbabwe Historical Association (ZHA). Feedback, email: bmaregedze@gmail.com

The Rise and fall of Robert Mugabe (1980-2017)

https://www.google.co.zw/amp/s/www.herald.co.zw/the-rise-and-fall-of-robert-mugabe/amp/

The rise and fall of Robert Mugabe

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ABOVE: Former president Robert Mugabe is flanked by National Patriotic Front members Jealousy Mawarire (left) and the party’s then interim president Retired Brigadier-General Ambrose Mutinhiri after his resignation. RIGHT: Robert Mugabe during his days as Zanu secretary-general. - File photos.

Brian Maregedze Book Review
Life and Times of Robert Mugabe (1980-2017): Dream Betrayed
Kenneth Mufuka and Cyril Zenda, 2018, Afro-media Publishers, South Carolina, ISBN 9-781513-625959
Reviewed by Brian Maregedze

The personality of Robert Mugabe has dominated post-independence narratives of Zimbabwe’s history. In the year 2004, Roy E. Brownwell II, in a reviewed essay, observed the declining nature of Robert Mugabe’s career which eventually reached its arguably “humiliating end” on November 21 2017.

“The Life and Times of Robert Mugabe” is the subject of investigation in a recently published book by Ken Mufuka and Cyril Zenda, starting from Robert Mugabe’s famous speech as Prime Minister in independent Zimbabwe and ending in his downfall in the political stage in 2017. This timely publication, unlike other works on the same personality, compares Robert Mugabe to Tshaka the Zulu in many ways.

Unlike earlier Eurocentric writers on the life of Robert Mugabe, Mufuka and Zenda argue that their book offers an Afrocentric view of the man, deploying Tshaka Zulu as a prism to analyse Mugabe’s life. While this is commendable, I am sure some readers will find it far-fetched to use the tag of “Afrocentric” just because they are using Tshaka the Zulu.

The two authors firstly identify and summarise existing narratives as well as the challenges that beleaguer these narratives. The tags of an “Englishman”, “passionate Catholic”, “the exceptional public speaker”, “the Machiavellian politician” and “the dictator” or “Hitler” of the West are articulated and problematised.

In the third and fourth chapter, a monolithic writing of the life of Robert Mugabe is made, though with little success. Although Mufuka and Zenda claim to debunk the narratives of earlier journalists on Robert Mugabe, they fall in the same trap as they prematurely use Tshaka the Zulu under the guise of historical anachronism.

A bitter man who has lived a life of bitterness is portrayed, in love with his mother just like King Tshaka the Zulu is offered in what these two authors claim is a comparative view. Reading through the infamous 2005 Murambatsvina (clear out of filth), Mugabe is portrayed as a tyrant (p.48).

Again, labelling Mugabe as “callous”, the ideological lenses deployed still have Western flavour, thereby falling to the pedestrian Eurocentric approaches that the two authors ostensibly set out to debunk (p.33). To describe Mugabe while extracting Western theologians and their discourses on divinity doesn’t tally with an Afrocentric reading of Mugabe as the two authors had initially argued (p.10).

The sixth and seventh chapters address the way Robert Mugabe responded to the needs of the war veterans led by the late Chenjerai Hunzvi. During the same period (1997-1998), a number of steps which plunged Zimbabwe into “crisis” are explored, among them the effects of the Economic Structural Adjustment Programmes [ESAP], the impact of the Mozambican excursions, war veterans’ gratuities and compensation funds, the involvement of Zimbabwe in the Democratic Republic of Congo war, and the publication of the report on the Matabeleland disturbances (Gukurahundi).

All these were issues at Mugabe’s doorstep and needed his attention. This then brought the rise of anti-Government sentiments from various spheres of the Zimbabwe society. The period between 2000-2008, which the authors titled “Things Fall Apart” (probably a reference to Chinua Achebe’s most famous novel), saw the formation of the Movement for Democratic Change and other anti-Mugabe forces which suited the Western view of multi-party democratic movement.

Mugabe developed a modus operandi to the crisis, which hovered around blaming the British government, accusing local political opponents, deploying the “LAND IS THE ECONOMY” slogan culminating in the land debate among others explained in the book.

The eighth chapter focuses on the central argument of the book, which compares Robert Mugabe to Tshaka the Zulu. In this section the authors identify circumstances in which Mugabe deployed the perilous concept of “belonging” to attack political opponents, “manufactured” enemies, especially the urban populace, which Mugabe accused of voting for the opposition party. In retribution, Mugabe authorised the Operation Murambatsvina to punish the urbanites whom he described as “thankless people” (p.105).

He also pursued a “Look East Policy” in response to the imposed illegal sanctions on Zimbabwe by the Western countries. Notable also was the “unstable and contradictory relationship” between Mugabe and the military, traced from the late General Zvinavashe’s tenure as the Zimbabwe Defence Forces Commander to Mugabe’s demise in 2017.

The issue of “personalisation” of the liberation struggle also comes out strongly. The ninth chapter delves into political violence characterising the 2008 elections. The book concludes with a chronicle of once-Mugabe allies now-turned-enemies, and the perceived victims of Mugabe. These include the late Joshua Nkomo, Joseph Msika, Solomon Mujuru (Rex Nhongo) and Joice Mujuru. It was during the episode of trying to humiliate and deal with yet another now-perceived “enemy”, the now president, Cde Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa (congratulations are in order), that Mugabe faced his own Waterloo. The dismissal of the then Vice President, ED Mnangagwa, under spurious accusations led to the demise of Mugabe.

While the book is readable to a general reader, the authors could have done better in their presentation and editing. Reading through the book, one is easily irritated by the numerous typological errors, with dates supposedly of post-independence Zimbabwe falling into pre-colonial era, for instance, 1886 erroneously used in line with Matabeleland disturbances which in actual fact are under the 1980s (p.9).

To a critical academic reader, the book is not worthy of recommendation. With the rise of self-publishing industry in Zimbabwe and the world over, this book can be used as a case study on the need to have professional editorial work considering that the book appears hurriedly published.

Brian Maregedze is a historian, author and columnist

Advanced Level August Holiday Lessons

'A' Level FRS, SOC & HISTORY

With Brian Maregedze  (Author, Historian & Columnist)

Main Objectives
-Intensive Revision for all topics
-Exam coaching
-Free handouts
-Revision booklets available  (History, FRS & Sociology)
Investment: $25 per subject

Date: Starting on 01 August 2018

Venue: Dzidzo Academy Jason Moyo n Rezende parkade, 4th  floor- Harare. (Uz rank)

To book your place, Call/app; Brian Maregedze  +263779210440

For humanities resources; articles, essay samples and latest researches follow,
Humanitiesspecialists.blogspot.com or my Facebook page Brian Maregedze

Make hay while the sunshines

Nature and Function of Alien Spirits in Shona Traditional Religion, Sample essay

Explain the nature and function of Alien Spirits in the Shona\Ndebele Traditional Religion.
By Brian Maregedze

The concept of God, divinities and spirits in African traditional religious ontology has been a controversial and misunderstood concept. In African traditional religion, the concept of spirits is well defined.  This is because Africans believe in, recognize and accept the fact of the existence of spirits, who may use material objects as temporary residences and manifestations of their presence and actions through natural objects and phenomena as postulated by Idowu (1973:173)   Spirits are nondescript, immortal and invisible entities. Alien spirits are spirits of people who died far away from home and rituals for bringing back the spirits are not held for them (kurova guva). So, the spirits find hosts to possess. The origin of the term shavi derives from kushava (hunting) which is a traditional practice which occurred in the forest away from home. People who died in the forest then possess people in any family. The hunters shed blood by killing animals through hunting. The blood is shava (red). As a result, shavi mediums use red pieces of cloth. But their association with red also makes them evil. This is because they do not possess material body through which they could be seen but they may incarnate into any material thing in order to make themselves seen for any reason or purpose. Alien spirits are spirits that usually hover and wonder around which were disqualified from the Nyikadzimu and sometimes they are referred to as immature spirits and are believed to be raised by magic. These spirits may manifest in different ways and forms which may include sparks of light, show appears as black objects, creatures and others manifest in dreams. There are different classes of Alien Spirits and these include Revenge Spirit (Ngozi spirit), Animal Spirit (Chikwambo), Njuzu Spirit, Goritoto spirit and Tokoloshi Spirit. It can be noted that an Alien spirit can either destroy or protect.
 
There are several types of shavi spirits. Shavi dzviti originates from the Ndebele. Dzviti is a warrior and the spirit is a fighting spirit which recalls the intertribal wars between the Shona and Ndebele. During the wars the spirit would lead the Ndebele people. The host speaks in Ndebele and is associated with divination. Shavi regudo is the spirit of a baboon involved in dancing. The host behaves like a baboon and assumes the animal’s behavior of eating raw maize, overturning stones presumably in search of scorpions just as the baboon. Some people also associate baboon spirit with stealing crops in the fields since the baboon is well known for stealing in the fields. The dancing ritual of a baboon spirit is very spectacular. Shavi rechizungu is another example of a spirit which is a white person’s spirit whom are believed to have died, for instance there are some white people who are believed to have died in Mberengwa years ago, and their spirits appear as mashavi. The host imitates a European way of life, like speaking in English even though the host is illiterate, drinking tea, smoking cigarettes, nodding and moving hair backwards. The spirit is associated with business ventures. Other foreign shavi are shavi rechisena from Mozambique and shavi romumwenye from the Remba and Arabic culture. The shavi are associated with healing and business. Chipunha is the spirit of a child which is playful. The host cries and laughs like a child, eating mucus and kidding since they are invisible, these spirits are thought to be ubiquitous, so that a person is never sure where they are or are not Mbiti,(1976:79).

Some spirits are hateful for instance the Ngozi spirits of people who died in anger and are often referred to as angry spirits. Some of these spirits cause havoc on humans and so man uses many methods or tools to wade them off as postulated by Awolalu (1979:43) They are greatly feared by the Shona and the spirits include victims of murder as postulated by Mbiti (1969:67) The Shona believe if a person has been murdered his soul does not perish, instead he rises to seek revenge. Either he comes on his own or is raised by the living. If his body is not lost in the bush relatives beat the corpse with a whip in the mortuary or hut inciting the spirit to rise and fight. They utter prayers and apply medicines during the process awakening the spirit and this process can occur at the grave or at the site which the murder occurred. The spirit strikes the family of the murderer through death and the deaths are mysterious and involve lighting which wipes the family and livestock. Usually the culprit is spared temporarily in order to experience the consequences of his deeds. Ngozi may reveal its intention through a spirit medium. The medium can recover the bones of the deceased from where the murder took place hence it can be noted that the mediums play a very important role in the African society. The family consult a n’anga a traditional healer, who mediates between the angry spirit and the family. The ngozi is settled through compensation. Usually a girl child from the family of the murderer is used as compensation in the bid to appease the spirits. The girl child is given or dedicated to the ngozi spirit as symbolic wife. She can marry within the family of the spirit only with the approval of the spirit but without the approval of the spirit she should not marry. Another means of payment is cattle. Some people believe they can stop the angry spirit by cutting off and eating the murdered person’s small finger. Others try to stop or neutralize the devastating power of the spirit by protective medicines through the help of a nánga or traditional healer. But the exercise can be dangerous and sometimes the traditional healer nángas are not willing to cooperate.  According to Shoko(2007: 42) the Shona say 'Mushonga wengozi kuripa' (medicine for ngozi is payment) which means that the only way to appease the Ngozi Spirit is by paying however it proves to be problematic on whether the Ngozi spirit can really be appeased so as not to strike again.

Ngozi spirit can also be caused by several reasons and it can be noted that it is the most dangerous one. It may be the spirit of an aggrieved person who is wronged, an ill-treated spouse, someone indebted, failure to comply with the deceased‘s expectations and witchcraft Bourdillon (1976: 271). In all cases the attack of ngozi is very dangerous since it involves serious illness, death and misfortune. Pacification of the Ngozi spirit requires payment and punishment afflicted on the guilty person. In the case of an ill-treated wife the husband is subjected to ‘house arrest’ in which he is expected to live and maintain the house used by his wife. Someone who beats his mother is punished by undergoing a ritual of kutanda botso which involves public humiliation where one can move around the community while wearing sacks while begging for food and he is insulted or even beaten by the people. Villagers subject him to harsh punishment like pouring water over his body. The most serious punishment is being made to separate grain and corn that have been mixed in a bag.

Njuzu (mermaid) spirits is another example of an Alien spirit and is associated with water. People describe the mermaid as a weird creature which is half human and half fish. It bears features of a woman with long hair and breasts and is believed to be very beautiful. It grows a reed at the back. Njuzu lives in water but occasionally moves out. The creature can kidnap people who come to the water source where it will be. Victims are people drawing water, fishing or swimming at the river. The mermaid spirit drags the victim underneath the water to a special enclosure where it resides. Astrong wind can blow and the victim is taken. The victim’s companions and relatives are not allowed to mourn or shed a tear lest the person captured will die. The spirit provides the captive with food comprising mud, water, insects and creatures. After a period of time, the relatives consult a nánga traditional healer about the disappearance of their relative. A spirit medium identifies the mermaid spirit as responsible and a ritual should be organized by senior spirit mediums with drumming, singing and dance at the river side. Njuzu spirit releases the captive alive that is if the relatives did not mourn the person who was captured. Usually those who are captured by this kind of spirit return possessing special power and they become traditional healers. According to Dahlin (2002:54)  the Njuzu spirit can transform a person from captivity to a traditional medical practitioner who provides important service to the community so in a way it can be noted that the njuzu spirit helps the community at large by providing scared practitioners that help in the solving of problems in the society and mediating between the ancestors and the people.

Various Alien spirits shavi confer benefits. Shavi roudzimba specialises in hunting. This would make someone rich back then as anyone who was great at hunting would exchange his game meat with other goods or even sell the meat to make a living and provide for the family.  It is the original spirit of hunters. Magoritoto (ghosts) are spirits of people who appear in human form as they were in life. The spirits are non-violent but cause fear. Sometimes the ghosts can escort one when travelling at night and usually at dangerous places so they save the purpose of protecting people from danger. They greet a person as they pass through on the way. But they can be angry if the person misbehaves and they can be angered by smelly things like perfumes.  They grow very tall and produce fire. Zvipoko (spooks) are spirits of people who wander near the homesteads at the grave site. They can emit fire which frightens the people. They may appear as human beings and cause accidents on the road. Some turn into prostitutes but disappear when the lights are switched on in bed. Others pretend to accompany men to their homes and in the morning the man and his clothes are found on a grave. 

Shavi rouroyi is another spirit which has negative attributes and is involved in witchcraft. The Shona people share beliefs in witchcraft called uroyi. The witches are men and women who are prompted by jealousy to inflict harm on their enemies. There are some spirits associated with witchcraft. Zvidhoma (goblins) are the most dreaded. Some call them zvitupwani. They are spirits of dead people manipulated by witchcraft. They are used by witches to kill and harm other people. Chidhoma is a dwarf and stout with a human form. It has an ugly face with a long bead and hairy skin, and a large [bulbous] eye on the forehead. A single clap from the forehead can paralyse the victim. The mouth goes on the side and the voice may be lost. Witches also use them to suck blood from the victims which lead to death. They can appear in form of animals (zvivanda) like a cat or birds (zvishiri). They can enter a kitchen, eat too much sadza, defecate and break pots and plates (Shoko 2007: 42). The Shona say the host. Usually those who are possessed by this type of shavi are said to be awake most of the time at night while others are sleeping. They are invisible and it can be difficult for one to note or identify their presence. This spirit has the ability to kill, bring bad omen and diseases. From time to time they have demands which is human blood and this results in the mysterious death caused by this spirit. This spirit can be inherited from generation to generation be it voluntarily or involuntarily. Shavi rezungura confers stealing. This refers to notorious thief who breaks into people’s homes and steals livestock and household property and because someone is possessed by this spirit one fails to control themselves and they sometimes steal just for the sack of stealing. Shavi rechihure is involved in prostitution. Shavi also explain extra ordinary behavior in eating sadza, drinking tea or beer, smoking mbanje and in athletics.

Jukwa spirits are responsible for rain. The Shona refer to them as manyusa. They are sent by chiefs as messengers to the Mwari cult at Matonjeni to ask for rain. They also carry special gifts to present to the oracle. They are involved in rain rituals at the cult. The manyusa spirit mediums are well respected people. They have rules which they follow which guide their behaviour like avoidance of food our use of modern transport on the way to Matonjeni. The hosanna spirit mediums at the cult are possessed by the spirits. They are responsible for rain making rituals and dance in honour of spirits (Dahlin 2002: 75).

Zvikwambo are spirits of people raised by magic. An alternative term is zvitokorochi (tokolotches). The spirits have an appetite for money, sex and blood. They originate from South Africa and are brought by labour migrants in search of economic survival. The owner sources zvikwambo from a nánga A contact is made for the spirits to provide wealth and the owner to supply regular sex and blood. So, they steal money and give to the owner. He dedicates a woman to the spirits for sexual purposes. They appear as frogs which suck women’s breasts for milk. They draw blood from people’s bodies and cause death. The owner is expected to fulfil the obligations of the spirits. If he fails to comply zvikwambo will demand sex and kill within his own family as argued by Chitando (2005:66)

Spirits manifest in different ways. They produce fire at night, light in the houses and can appear as burning trees. But they also manifest as objects like a moving bus. People take a ride but realise themselves sitting on the ground when the bus moves. In some cases they appear as human figures or voices and whistles. The Shona avoid calls and travels at night. But some believe they can withstand spirits by protective charms and medicines. Others use mbanje or gunpowder as repellent against spirits (Shoko 2007: 43).

In conclusion, generally the Shona have benevolent spirits in the traditional sense. Some spirits are guardians and protect the living while others are very dangerous and harmful spirits. Other spirits confer skills and benefits to the living. Angry spirits are dreadful but they determine ethical behaviour in society. The administer justice by compensation to the extent of exchanging life for another and payment of cattle. They enforce adherence to traditional norms against murder and due to the fact that people are afraid of angering the spirits people tend to abide by the rules hence making the community a safe place to be.

For feedback
Email; bmaregedze@gmail.com
Call/app +263779210440

REFERENCES
Dahlin, O. Zvinorwadza: Being a Shona Patient in the Religious and Medical Plurality of Mberengwa District, Zimbabwe, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.  2002.

Bourdillon, M. The Shona People: Ethnography of the Contemporary Shona, with Special Reference to their Religion, Gweru: Mambo Press, 1976.

Awolalu, J. Omosade and Dopamu, P. Adelumo.  West African Traditional Religion. Ibadan: Onibonoje, 1979ss

Shoko, T. (2007) Karanga Indigenous Religion in Zimbabwe: Health and Wellbeing, London: Ashgate

Mbiti, J.S (1975) An Introduction to African Religion (London: Heinemann,)

Mbiti. J.S (1969). African Religions and Philosophy. New York: Doubleday

Chitando.E (2005) “High Density Spiritual Worlds and African Pentecostalism:
Interpreting Religion in Africa” in Magnus Lundberg (ed.) in Swedish Missiological
Themes.

Idowu, E. Bolaji.  African Traditional Religion: A Definition.  London: SCM, 1973

Islam in Zimbabwe

Islam in Zimbabwe
Ephraim Mandivenga, Gweru, Mambo Press, 1983.

Reviewed by Brian Maregedze

Ephraim Mandivenga was arguably a pioneer scholar in the study of Islam in Zimbabwe. The book traces the historical background to the development of Islam in Zimbabwe. The birth of Islamic interaction in Zimbabwe was not a new phenomenon but can be traced from precolonial Zimbabwe. Within eight chapters, Mandivenga thematically delved into development of Islam in Zimbabwe, the distinctive features of Islam, the main practices of the Islamic Faith, Islam and Indigenous population, the coming of Malawian Muslims to Zimbabwe, National Islamic Organization, and activities of Muslim youths in Zimbabwe and lastly, problems and needs of Muslims in Zimbabwe.

In the first chapter, Muslim Arabs came from the East African Coast prior to 1500 A.D. The main agenda was trade with the interior leading to intermarriages taking place. Spreading of Islam was made possible in Eastern and Central Africa as a result of intermarriages. The Monomotapa Empire had good relations with the Muslim traders which were however partly disturbed by the coming of Portuguese missionaries. It is around 1561 that Father Goncalo da Silveira was murdered with the Portuguese realizing that Muslims exerted much influence as they had hitherto thought existed. Drawing from D.N Beach’s work, The Shona and Zimbabwe 900-1850, the gradual absorption of the Muslims into the Shona world was observed. Traces of (re)introduction of Islam in present day Zimbabwe were collected from various sources, with some pointing to some groups of Lemba (Vamwenye) from the Zoutpansberg who had come to the area south of Belingwe prior to the fall of the Changamire, Buhera district around 1961, 1974 some of the people in Gutu were Islamized, during the construction of Victoria Falls Bridge among others. Some people who remained after finishing the construction of the bridge were of Asiatic origins. The way some Asians settled in Masvingo were also explored. The demography of the Muslim population and also areas in which they represented are dealt with.

In the second chapter, Mandivenga addressed the meaning of Islam as literally ‘submission’, ‘surrender’ or ‘peace.’  This monotheistic religion was also contextualized in the history of world religions. Born in the seventh century, with Muhammad interpreted as a historical figure pivotal in the birth of Islam. Other issues that precise meanings from Islamic teachings proffer included the Quran and the Mosque.
The third chapter is divided into sections, one focusing on the cardinal articles of the Islamic Faith whilst the second section on Pillars of Islam.

Chapter four is an extension of chapter one as details on indigenous population that adopted Islam became apparent, because of the need to train indigenous Muslims or promising Imaams, an 18 acre piece of land was bought in Waterfalls, a Harare southern suburb. Some of the lessons imparted covered reading and writing Arabic with a survey of Islamic history.

Chapter five delves into Malawian migrant laborers coming to colonial Rhodesia (present day Zimbabwe). The Yao from Zanzibar were not left out in the migration to the present day Zimbabwe with some moving to South Africa. The Malawians were very important in that they brought converts of Islam who could assist in the teachings of Islam.
In chapter six, the highest judicial body of Islam in Zimbabwe was introduced as the Council of Imaams (Majlisul-ulama). In 1982, the body had fifty qualified Imaams. Islamic communities represented by the body encompass areas such as Harare, Bulawayo, Kwekwe, Gweru, Kadoma, Mutorashanga, Zvishavane and Masvingo. The body was also founded with a view to promote Islamic education primarily among Zimbabwean Muslims. Other eight elements of the work of body with its aims and objectives are dealt with.

More important was the formation of the Zimbabwe Islamic Mission (ZIM) founded in 1977 with a mission to provide secular and religious education for children whose parents lack financial and material resources to provide the necessary amenities. Some of the projects carried out around 1982 included construction of centers in Mbizo (Kwekwe), Seke National (Harare), Karoi and at Shangai Mine. The ZIM was headquartered in Kwekwe due to its central strategic position in the country. Islamic institutions as they are represented with various Mosques around the country are dealt with in terms of locations.

In chapter seven there was optimism with particular focus on Muslim Youths. The various activities carried out by the Muslim Youth League in Zimbabwe demonstrated a unique dimension in scholarship on the role of youths in Islam.

The last chapter deals with the problems and needs of Muslims. Some problems include secular education, trained personnel, finance, Islamic Education Centres and Islamic Literature. On the needs side, Primary Education Centres, Teacher Training Centres, Translation Academy, National Islamic Library, Islamic Press, Arabic Language Teachers, Bursaries for Islamic Studies among others.
The book is indeed a standard work in the study of Islam for students in Family and Religious studies, those with a quest to unpack myths on Islam in Zimbabwe as well as even the classroom practitioners in the study of Islam. With only 83 pages, it is an easy read book written in appealing language for high school candidates and tertiary students. Some of the positive steps in the teaching of Islam in Zimbabwe is New Hope College located in Harare along Charter Road. Chinyika Primary school in Gutu is a product of the Chinyika Muslim Centre founded with the prime and basic purpose of teaching and propagating the Islamic Faith.  With over ten books offered for further reading on Islam, Mandivenga’s book, Islam in Zimbabwe deserves a place in every library with a new meaning. However, Mandivenga wrote in a style synonymous with one delivering a doctrine to believers. The need to problematize challenges encountered by the Muslims as they settled in present day Zimbabwe deserved analysis. Possibly, attitudes of indigenous people in relation to the coming of Islam in Zimbabwe. Nonetheless, it is commendable that there was no history of conflict with the Islamic religion in precolonial, colonial and independent Zimbabwe.

Discuss the role played by Cecil John Rhodes in the colonization of Zimbabwe

Discuss the role played by Cecil John Rhodes in the colonization of Zimbabwe

By Brian Maregedze

The key issue is the discussion on Rhodes’ contribution towards the occupation of Zimbabwe in 1890
Candidates may focus on the following;
Rhodes’ involvement in signing of a number of treaties for example the Moffat Treaty, Rudd Concession all which spear headed the ultimate colonization of Zimbabwe
His financial background- he owned De Beers Mining Company. He was filthy rich to a point of sponsoring the colonization process of Zimbabwe
Ability to bribe\very corrupt personality- Lotshe abd Sikombi Lobengua’s indunas were bribed
Ability to mobilize military support- published in the new posts with lucrative benefits
Cape to Cairo dream- aimed at painting Africa red. Hence was geared towards having a railway line stretching from Cape to Cairo. Thus for this project to succeed all Nations through which the line was to pass through were to be colonized.
Photo: Cecil John Rhodes

Belief in the existence of the 2ND Rand- he had high hopes of the 2ND Rand following the discovery of diamonds in South Africa. The belt was assumed to be moving to the north across the Limpopo River
Rhodes’ imperialism and his racist bigotry- hoped to create a large British empire; hence Southern Africa became an eyesore.

However, the role of the British Empire in facilitating the colonization of Zimbabwe is worth commenting on. In as much as Rhodes had imperialistic plans, Britain anointed him by sponsoring the the British South Africa Company (BSAC).

For more details information;
Email, bmaregedze@gmail.com or call/app +263779210440

Mid-year examz around the corner

As the mid-year examinations are around the corner let's engage in serious group discussions as well as individual study. Being faithful to your timetable is a prerequisite/compulsory.

For those in need of individual lessons, class lessons and or seminars feel free to call/app +263779210440.

For revision questions and answers, or humanities notes check in humanitiesspecialists.blogspot.com.

Have a blessed Sunday!!!

24/06/2018
Brian Maregedze
(Author, columnist and historian)

A Guide to Sources of African History: For Advanced Level Examinations by Brian Maregedze

Foreword
The study of History is one of the hallmarks of human beings, epitomized by the saying that “those who do not want to learn the mistakes of history are bound to repeat them”. It is arguably an area which humanity can only ignore at its own peril. This book is a welcome contribution to those studying History at A Level. It focuses on the crucial matter of sources of history. Many would testify that the recovery of proper and credible History hinges on the credibility of the sources used by a student of history. In that respect, this book does well in analyzing the different sources that a historian has at his/her disposal. It is my wish that those who will utilise this guide find it very useful, and contributes towards their knowledge of history, and passing their Advanced Level examinations.
Josphat Gwezhira

Regional and International History Advanced Level : Specimen Paper 2

 

ZIMBABWE SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL

General Certificate of Education Advanced Level

HISTORY 6006/2

SPECIMEN PAPER 2018

Additional material:

Answer paper

TIME 3 hours

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

Write your name, Centre number and candidate number in the spaces provided on the answer paper.
Answer four questions from at least three of Sections A – E.
Write your answers on the separate answer paper provided.
If you use more than one sheet of paper, fasten the sheets together.

INFORMATION FOR CANDIDATES

This paper consists of 20 questions.
Each question in this paper carries 25 marks.
You are reminded of the need for good English and clear presentation in your answers.
________________________________________________________________________________

Section A

1. To what extent was Samouri Toure’s empire created and preserved by military means?
2. How far was the failure to obtain a substitute the main obstacle to the abolition of Slave Trade in West Africa?
3. Evaluate the importance of the House System in the Niger Delta States.
4. ‘The colonisation of Africa in the last quarter of the nineteenth century was an attempt to avert an impending political crisis in Europe.’ Do you agree?

Section B

5. How far did economic suffering by the Third Estate in the period to 1789 precipitate the French Revolution?
6. ‘A period of unnecessary and indiscriminate violence.’ To what extent is this true of the reign of terror in France?
7. Assess the impact of Napoleon Bonaparte’s domestic reforms on the French people.
8. To what extent was Napoleon I’s foreign policy dependent on the army?

Section C

9. ‘Each nation for itself and God for us all.’ To what extent did this British policy contribute to the collapse of the Congress System?
10. Discuss the assertion that Charles X’s rule in France was ‘vindictive and retrogressive.’
11. Examine the view that the papacy was the main obstacle to Italian unification in the period 1830 – 1871.
12. How valid is the assertion that Bismarck prioritised Prussian supremacy and interests in his policies up to 1870?

Section D

13. ‘A one-sided and vindictive treaty.’ Do you agree with this comment on the treaty of Versailles?
14. To what extent did Stressmann’s policies delay Hitler’s ascendance to power in the period 1924 to 1930?
15. Assess the impact of Mussolini’s domestic policies on the Italian people between 1922 and 1940.
16. How far was the policy of Appeasement the main cause of the outbreak of World
War II?

Section E

17. To what extent did Tsar Nicholas II’s participation in the First World War lead to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917?
18. Peasant support was key to the Chinese Communist party’s rise to power by 1949?
19. Examine the view that Stalinism caused more harm than good in Russia in the period
1924 - 1953.
20. How effective was the United Nations Organisation (UNO) as a peacekeeping body from the late 1940s to the mid 1980s?

6006/2 Specimen paper 2018

New Curriculum Specimen Paper: History of Zimbabwe (Pre-colonial to present) Advanced Level

 

ZIMBABWE SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL
General Certificate of Education Advanced Level
HISTORY 6006/1
PAPER 1History of Zimbabwe(Pre-colonial to present)
SPECIMEN PAPER 3 hours
Additional materials:
Answer paper

TIME 3 hours

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

Write your name, Centre number and candidate number in the spaces provided on the answer paper.
Answer four questions from at least three of Sections A – D.
Write your answers on the separate answer paper provided.
If you use more than one sheet of paper, fasten the sheets together.
INFORMATION FOR CANDIDATES
This paper consists of 16 questions.
Each question in this paper carries 25 marks.
You are reminded of the need for good English and clear presentation in your answers.
_____________________________________________________________________________

SECTION A

1. Assess the reliability of historical sources used in the recovery of Zimbabwe’s
Pre-history.
2. To what extent archaeological sources help in the reconstruction of the history of the San?
3. ‘A curse and a blessing.’ Is this a fair assessment of the impact of Iron technology on farming communities in pre-colonial Zimbabwe?
4. How far did the ruling class contribute to the decline of Great Zimbabwe?

SECTION B

5. ‘The Portuguese were a catalyst in the demise of the Mutapa State in the nineteenthcentury.’ Discuss.
6. Evaluate efforts by missionaries to christianise the Ndebele up to 1893.
7. ‘The colonization of Zimbabwe in 1890 was inevitable.’ Discuss.
8. Assess Rhodes’ contribution to the colonisation of Zimbabwe.

SECTION C

9. Examine the reaction by different African groups to white encroachment on Zimbabwe.
10. Analyse the reasons for the outbreak of war between the British and the Ndebele in 1893.
11. Discuss the view that the railway construction was key to economic prosperity for the settlers up to the 1930s.
12. ‘Land was the main cause of the liberation struggle in Zimbabwe.’ How far do you agree?

SECTION D

13. To what extent can the decline of the Zimbabwean economy between 2000 and 2008 be attributed to the imposition of sanctions by the Western Countries?
14. How far can the period 2000 to 2010 in Zimbabwean history be described as a ‘wasted decade.’
15. Analyse the reasons leading to the Third Chimurenga.
16. Examine the Zimbabwe Government’s efforts in promoting democracy up to 2010.

6006/1 Specimen paper

Seke One High School Gallery, History Club with Mr. Mundondo

The photos posted with permission from Mr. Mundondo

Don't Die With Thirsty in Abundance!

By Brian Maregedze

Reflecting on the April holiday which is sometines called the Easter holiday, l managed to meet many students for two weeks covering topics in Family and Religious Studies as well as History for advanced levels. This has been an exciting phase indeed as l managed to interact in person with students, teachers and also parents. More interesting is the encouragement,  motivation l received not only from students or teachers but parents who take their time reading this blog. As schools open, it is my desire to communicate with students basing on the lessons we covered. This appeals to all students.

The observations and recommendation l seek to make is not limited to lessons covered but to some extent, whatsapp group interactions we had. Having met with some students, I personally shared soft copies of Handouts, books as well as articles to read. This has been good news to new learners whom l met. The general consensus is that there is not enough reading material for the New Curriculum. On the contrary,  l proved many students wrong. Schools yes, there are struggling to access reading material in general. This however,  doesn't represent the reality on the ground everywhere. My story isn't more to resource inadequacy but rather on those who are dying with thirsty in abundance (kufa nenyota makumbo ari mumvura). I earnestly encourage students to use whatever source of information they have. Given the reading material l shared with students, that l share using this platform l find it not justifiable to find students who still don't read.

Some students still showed that they were not reading the sources they had gathered from me over the two weeks we interacted through lessons and social media. This is sad on the part of students as this betrays their desire to see them earning excellent results at the end of year. Again, the very fact that one owns a gadget,  mobile phone or computer and has access to an expert in the subject should push you to work hard day and night for excellent results. It is not necessary to have all the resources and not utilize them for greater good and or excellent results. Students, l challenge you as you begin another term to rethink, focus and actively participate in all the learning activities which lead to your positive growth.

The future of Africa is in you. Harness the resources you have at all cost. In as much as some students claimed lack of cooperation with their classroom practitioners l insist and believe in Zimbabwe's teachers. As long a class has a teacher, l believe in positive results. Learning with passion on the part of student/s also inspires even the teachers.

The uncertainty of having class room practitioners has been circulating on  both print  and electronic media platforms as the term begins. This should never dumpen your spirit of learning. It is still possible to excel.

Mr Muso, the President of History Teachers Association of Zimbabwe in a whatsapp post had this say to students;

".... schools are opening. Our exams for October/November are fast approaching.Some are writing in June. Be focused from day one! Shape your life now, work harder!
Use this time wisely. Associate with friends who are focused. Relationships are not good for you now. The time for this will certainly come.
Pray to God for wisdom and understanding. Read your Bible every day in the morning and before you sleep.
Have a blessed term!
Bless you!"

It is my contention that, DON'T DIE WITH THIRSTY IN ABUNDANCE as we are always there for you and you. Enjoy your studies all the time.

FROM LIBERAL AUTOCRACY TO THE LIBERAL EMPIRE.’ DISCUSS THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SECOND EMPIRE AND EXPLAIN THE LIBERALIZATION OF THE SECOND EMPIRE UP TO 1860.

Liberalism is a complex word which has variously been interpreted in historical studies and this goes the same with the term autocracy. Historians of political ideology often intertwine complex and interesting accounts, attempting to chain ideology, political activities and philosophical locus into a comprehensible whole. As with many contemporary political concepts and ideologies, liberalism is a profoundly disputed concept, not least among liberals themselves. Be as it may stand, it is the purpose of this essay to discuss the constitutional development of the Second Empire and also  to explain the liberalization of the Second Empire up to 1860.

Liberal basically implies widely open to new ideas, willing to depart from established opinions or conventions (Oxford English Dictionary). In light of the French scenario when Napoleon lll came to the throne, his capacity to introduce universal male suffrage for those twenty years of age and above, whether with property or not makes him qualify to be called a liberal. On the same note, autocracy should be understood as a form of government whereby the leader has unlimited authority. It has to be observed that Napoleon lll wanted a return to the “glamorous days” of his uncle, Napoleon 1, (H.L Peacock). More important is that historiographical interpretations are offered in response to why liberalization of the empire took shape the way it did.
As a liberal autocrat, Louis Napoleon appointed representatives of those who had bias towards his reign mainly the head of the police was given to a Bonapartist. Again to demonstrate and fulfill his ambitions and promises, Napoleon lll send General Oudinot to suppress the Roman Republic which had been set up by Garibaldi and Mazzini. In this regard, Napoleon lll had a breach of the constitution by sending Oudinot to the Roman expedition since it was unconstitutional to interfere in the affairs of the Pope and his subjects. Such was the liberal autocrat of the French throne.
In addition to that, for the first decade of his reign, Napoleon lll faced little opposition since the propertied classes had been saved from the “spectre” of socialism and communism and thus the people generally were ready to tolerate dictatorship which seemed to offer room for safety in the nation. Also imperative is that, Louis Napoleon made efforts to implement what he had wrote in his early pamplet the Extinction of Pauperism whereby such efforts were seen in the launching of Public works projects among others. Thus, Napoleon lll was a liberal autocrat who knew how to play his cards close to his chest.

To further demonstrate the notion that Napoleon lll was a liberal autocrat it can be noted he had the capacity to thwart opposition vehemently as evidenced by the French novelists’ writings. Hugo Victor’s work depicted a scenario where he even lived in exile with also other famous Republicans who were either in prison or forbidden in the French penal/disciplinary settlements, (D. Thomson). Hence, as a liberal autocrat, Louis Napoleon consolidated his authority by support from the middle class and the peasantry as well as also the devotional loyalty from the army which lasted for sometime in France.

Also imperative are the differing views on why Napoleon lll liberalised the empire with some arguing that it was a voluntary measure whilst on the contrary, some historians point to push factors in his actions. Napoleon lll wanted to gain support from different opinionated opposition parties and it is along the way that he decided to liberalise the empire. Opposition from Republicans, the Bonapartists who supported his coup but at the same time they did not want or need an authoritarian government. This line of argument clearly articulates that Napoleon lll found himself liberalizing the empire not as a result of his personal voluntarism but rather an awkward circumstance of attempting to satisfy all sides without offending the other too much.

Be that as it may, the constitution launched with the mandate of the referendum of 1851 and 1852 made Napoleon lll even more powerful and authoritarian. The lower house was to be elected for only six years which would then paradoxically sit for three months in a year with its debates published in a censored form and the media under the same restrictions. Thus, the notion that Napoleon lll made a voluntary decision to move from liberal autocracy to the liberal empire requires a close examination and explanation.

However, to demonstrate that Napoleon lll was reluctant to liberalise is the period with which it took him to liberalise the empire. The first few years of his reign, one can observe that he was just interested in maintaining and being the all authority in France.The process that he (Napoleon lll) took has been used to argue for the notion that he was indeed just a victim of circumstances. Again, the same liberal reforms had a boomerang effect upon Napoleon lll since they led to his downfall especially on allowing freedom of expression in the press.
Nineteenth-century liberalism’s typical ambiguities can be appreciated, initially, in its indefinite association with its recent past, to the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. A.S Kahan (2003) notes that the trouble in positioning liberalism between left and right may perhaps be indebted much to this problem. Many of the goals liberals pursued in the nineteenth century had analogies with the aims of eighteenth-century enlightened reformers. However, one of the lessons liberals had learned from the French Revolution was to reject the radical methods proposed by some of the Enlightenment’s leading spirits.

The same scholar further points out that, liberals ‘views of the Revolution were equally fraught with tension. As the Revolution’s heirs, liberals identified themselves with the “men of 1789”. They proudly associated themselves with the “Declaration of the Rights of Man “and the abolition of feudal privileges, and they claimed the early accomplishments of the French Revolution as their own. On the other hand, liberals rejected Jacobinism, the Terror, and all the other aspects of the French Revolution summarized by the year 1793. Liberals sought not to unmake the Revolution, but to tame it so that the enlightened progress symbolized by 1789 could be maintained and carried on, and the Terror and anarchy they feared avoided. Opposing the virtues of 1789 to the vices of 1793 was a hallmark of liberal historiography of the Revolution.

Following the lines of the essay it can inferred from the above that Napoleon lll was a complex personality who made attempts to balance all factional groups which existed in France, challenges mounted on him from the Bonapartists as well as other opposition voices and movements.

References

Aggarwal M., History of France during Louis 18 to Napoleon 3, History of France
Beers F., World History: Patterns of Civilization, North Carolina University, Prentice Hall, 1993 Bodenstein F., Musealizing Napoleon (1837–2011): From Traditional Representations to a Dualistic European Master Narrative, Universite de Paris-Sorbonne, 2011
Cartographia, Napoleon 3 and the fall of An Empire, 29 May 2008 Chrastil, Who Lost the Franco-Prussian War? Blame, Politics, and Citizenship in the 1870s, Yale University, Volume 33, 2005
France under Napoleon 3, Nation Building in Italy, 3 March 2015 King, Experiencing World History, Second Edition, Milestone Publishers, California, 1994
Price P., The Second Empire 1852-1870, University of Abersywyth Price, The French Second Empire: Amatory of Political Power, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2001
Stockwell S., The Rise and Fall of Modern Empire, Volume 3, King’s College, London, 2013
http://e-bookrights.com/2015/05/europe-since-napoleon-2nd-edition-revised-by-david-thomson/, accessed on 30 April 2016
http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/1871/section5.rhtml, accessed on 30 April 2016.
http://www.napoleon.org/en/reading_room/timelines/files/@napoleonIII_life_august04.asp, accessed on 30 April 2016
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=mmt, accessed on 27 April 2016
http://ibatpv.org/projects/france/second_emp/default.htm, accessed on 27 April 2016
http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/2001025954.pdf, accessed on 27 April 2016
http://www.britannica.com/topic/Second-Empire, accessed on 27 April 2016

Harare-History Handout, Mastering History [Advanced level] ©2017, Brian Maregedze.

Harare-History Handout, Mastering History [Advanced level] ©2017, Brian Maregedze.
December 29
2017

The main thrust of this History Handout is to equip Advanced level History students with important information on Mastering essay writing as a skill to be attained at the end of the two year course. Sample introductions, structure of a proper Advanced Level History essay, question and answers models are clearly articulated based on experience from a dynamic young Historian and blogger of Divinityhistoryalevel.blogspot.com. As the writer is a Zimbabwean Historian, more of Zimbabwean History paper is addressed. Hence, those who have the quest to pass can utilize this source which covers important topics in African History
HISTORY ADVANCED LEVEL

About the writer

Brian Maregedze is a Master of Arts in African History [MAFH] candidate, holder of a Special Honours degree in History (S.H.S) and Bachelor of Applied Arts Major in History and Religious Studies (B.A.A) all from the University of Zimbabwe. He is currently a Teaching Assistant at the University of Zimbabwe in the department of History and he is also passionate about research, writing and contacting Seminars for High school students. He is also the co-author of Advanced Level Family and Religious Studies; Focus on Christianity and Islam (2018).
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Writing Essays is the most imperative skill that A-level Historians need to acquire. It is    undisputed that one may acquire all information to do with sources (reading material) at Advanced level but without Mastering Essay writing as a skill all becomes vanity and or a chasing after the wind. Again it has to be observed that essay writing is a skill which can be acquired through practice. One cannot become a seasoned essay writer without enjoying the exercises of writing like always. Just like athletes need more practice, exercises to master essentials for the final day of competition so candidates should do likewise. For one to acquire grade A+ the following sections should assist one to make it possible for they have worked for many students before. If one uses these explanations as a manual guide success is guaranteed.
Unfortunately, a good essay does not just consist of writing all you know on a given topic; at A-Level, examiners tend to insist on tricky things like answering the question, analysis rather than narrative and inclusion of information to support your points. Unless you are particularly gifted, these skills take time to learn and poor marks are common early on. Fortunately, these skills can be learnt, so don’t despair if your early attempts in lower sixth are torn to shreds by your teacher. Listen to his advice, read his comments and work on improving for the next time.
Although every essay will demand a unique answer, there are certain techniques common to all essays which will ensure that you don’t go too far wrong.
Failing to understand the question as it is, is as easy as failing to answer the question. One should be able to read and understand the question period. This may sound too obvious to mention, but all too often, someone sees a word or a phrase in the title and proceeds to reel off a prepared answer without considering whether what they are writing actually addresses the question asked. Read the question several times and make sure you understand what it is asking.
Analyze the Question
When you have read the question you should then analyze it. This is vital – many people do not make the distinction between what the question is asking and what the question is about. By breaking down the title into key words (the issue to be considered) and topic words (the subject matter), you can ensure that you actually answer the question rather than provide a simple narrative of events. A look at a couple of examples will show you what I mean:
° What measures did Mussolini take to consolidate his control over Italy from 1922 to 1925?
° Main Topic – Mussolini’s attack on political opponents, the parliamentary system nod the Fascist party.
° Key Words – 1922, 1925, measures, consolidate, HIS control
• In what ways did radicalism impact the Army, Army leaders and MPs between 1646 and 1653?
° Main Topic – the effect of radicalism on politics
° Key Words – army, army leaders, MPs, 1646, 1653
Brainstorming/Planning
It is also true that failing to plan is as easy as planning to fail. This is without doubt, the most imperative part of writing an essay. It is your brainstorming that determines what approach you take to answering the question. If you have written your plan properly, you will know exactly what your answer is going to be. This stops you from falling into the trap of deciding on the path of your essay whilst you are writing it. More importantly, your plan will ensure that you actually answer the question.
E
verything you write must be related to the question, and without a plan it is all to easy to lose focus and write irrelevant nonsense. Not answering the question is the most common failing in A-level essays, and there is nothing a teacher likes doing more than crossing out huge chunks of an essay with the word ‘irrelevant’! Write a good plan and this won’t happen to you.
Introduction
The introduction is one of those areas that leave some students suffocating whilst some start to write with enthusiasm and energy. Once you have made your plan, you are ready to begin. How do you start an essay? Unfortunately, there is no hard and fast rule – it will depend very much on the individual title. However one thing is absolutely certain, your introduction must make a good impression. It is the first thing anyone will read; if it fails to grip, the rest of the essay will have to be doubly good to retrieve the situation. In as much as writing essays at Advanced level is an academic exercise meant to inform rather than to entertain one has to write a well-informed introduction. 
As a classroom practitioner and essayist I have always encouraged students to understand one key issue when writing an introduction. The illustration is very simple and it goes like, everyone both male and female has their dress code and controls. To ladies they wear dresses with some being too long, others average, whilst others too short (mini).
Interesting to note is that one has to be sensitive in dressing to cover the essentials simultaneously retaining the interest.
Therefore a good introduction is not supposed to be too short or too long but rather in the same vein cover the essential that is highlight relevant points that have to address the requirements of the question.
There are three main ways of writing an introduction (notice that these are the main ways, not the only ways):
T
he safe approach is to simply state what you are going to do, sum up in a few sentences what the question is asking and say how you are going to answer it. Another way to begin is to actually state your answer in the introduction and then go on to prove your case in the essay. This approach is far more interesting because it shows you have a definite point of view, and are prepared to argue it. It shows the examiner that you have planned your essay, know what you are going to say and hopefully will support it with good evidence.
The final type of introduction is far more individual. You might use an interesting quote, describe a significant event, take issue with the question or otherwise set the scene. It is hard to define this type of introduction, but the effect will be to show that you have complete mastery of the subject, understand the issues at stake and will be dealing with them thoroughly. This kind of start will grip readers, impress them and make them want to read on. It is also very difficult to write

Introduction Samples

"Louis xvi's blunders contributed to the outbreak of the French Revolution". How valid is this assertion
Louis xvi's blunders relates and or refers to the errors, flaws, wrong decisions as well as miscalculations made in an attempt to address and curb the financial crisis in France.  Some of the blunders made by Louis xvi as the absolute King of France include the involvement of the French troops in the American war of independence, firing able finance ministers, demonstrating indecisiveness on the taxation issue among others. However, it has to be observed that other factors which were within France contributed directly or indirectly to the outbreak of the French revolution such as the Influence of French Philosophers, the poor harvests of 1788-9 to mention only these among many. Hence, this essay seeks to analyse the validity of the above assertion.
M
ain Body
The main body of the essay is where you prove your case. Once you have planned your essay, this section will almost write itself, it is just a question of filling in the gaps. You will know what paragraphs you are going to write and what information you are going to use. However, remember that you are answering a question, not narrating a story. You have already identified the key issues in the question, now it is time to use them. Every paragraph must refer in some way to the key words and issues or it is danger of being irrelevant. Be ruthless – you will have far more information than you need and must select carefully only that which you need to support your points.
However, it is also important to avoid writing an essay which consists purely of no arguments – you must not make unsubstantiated claims. For everything you say you must have supporting facts or examples – otherwise your essay will be full of assertions and no more than hot air. This balance between analysis and supporting detail is what makes up the skill of essay writing, and takes time and practice to learn. If you can learn from your mistakes early on and put the effort in over the two-year course, you will be able to write a good essay.
Make Statements, and then explain what you meant by the statement and be sure to illustrate your argument with examples and information
Conclusion
The conclusion is where you sum up what you have said in the essay. It is absolutely vital that you write one. This is the last thing the examiner reads and counts for a great deal. A good conclusion can rescue an indifferent essay and set the seal on a good one. It is here that you draw together the threads of your argument and hammer home your points, leaving the reader in no doubt as to your answer. You should refer explicitly to the key words that you identified in the question and reinforce the points you made in the main body. Above all it should contain nothing new; it is simply a restatement of your argument. If there is anything you forgot to say earlier, leave it out, it is too late now!

E
valuate the interdisciplinary approach of historical sources in the reconstruction of the pre-historic Zimbabwean past. [25]
The key issue is an examination of historical sources and their utility in recovering the history of pre-historic Zimbabwe
Evaluate approach includes all sources of history and find out their merits and demerits.
Candidates are expected to focus on the main sources giving specific examples.
The main sources include;
Archaeology
Written records
Oral tradition
Rock art
Anthropology
Linguistics and Botany.
The interdisciplinary role played by these sources in recovering history should be outlined.
Archaeology-the scientific study of the remains of the past. Examples of the remains are Chinese ceramic suggesting trade between people at Great Zimbabwe with those from Far East, cattle bones illustrating livestock production at the Iron Age sites. Jewelers-beads, bangles all being items acquired through trade. Cowries shells, Chinese glass, arrow spears, broken pottery all suggesting a diversified economic way of life. Limited in that details lack especially on King Lists, totems, silent method, some information missing due to time factor. However, useful in that the information can be tested and verified. Provides information on agriculture, trade, mining and pastoralist.

W
ritten records- provide primary and secondary information. Information is from documents produced by Arabs and the Swahili recorded mainly on trade between Great Zimbabwe and the Far East. The origins, rise and expansion of the states particularly Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe. The trade relations that existed between the states during the prehistoric period are among other written information provided. Limited in that the writer can be biased, secondary information is prone to distortion. However, useful as they provide detailed information.

Oral tradition- oral spoken stories passed from generation to generation. Only those elders who still remember the stories (kept events in memories) can supply information e.g. King lists, totems, trade relations, rise and fall of the pre-historic Zimbabwean sites and states. It may be regarded as the chief source and offers detailed information. However, it is prone to exaggeration and distortion.

Rock art- mainly pictures drawn by the San. Help in reconstructing the history as clearly drawn pictures of animal hunted, economic activities such as fishing, gathering, and hunting among others were left on rocks and in caves. Rock art in general depicts the political, social, economic and religious way of life during the pre-historic era. The limitations depend on the historian’s competence in recovering the history from the pictures drawn. Hence, it’s prone to misrepresentation of facts projected on the pictures.

Anthropology- focuses much on the development that took place as a result of advanced technological skills. Mankind portrayed skills on pottery making, iron tool making and use. Intermarriages and the cultural dynamics which were so clear all can explain the existence rise.

L
inguistic- traces on origins of Bantu speaking people and their eventual settlement in Southern Africa. Linguistic evidence also contributes though to a limited extent in the reconstruction of the pre-historic Zimbabwean past. Focus is on origins of the spoken languages.

Oral traditions
One of the challenges that class room practitioners encounter when imparting historical knowledge to candidates on Oral traditions has to do with giving practical examples which assist candidates to remember and know that historical learning is not only about the past, but also we can gain information about the present. One of the simplest approach that I have used over the years as a result of my interaction with Dr. James Muzondidya when l was still an undergraduate candidate is that of reciting my totem as a tool to start to reflect on the use of Oral traditions and relevance in our daily lives. The following is my totem as l learned it from reading A.C Hodza poetry book.
Gumbo-Madyirapazhe

Mazviita gumbo,
Maita zvenyu Madyirapazhe,
Shava huru yakapamba Gona,
Gara ramasango, chipauro chamafuta,
Godzamuto, mhuru inobva Gona,
Vezheve tsvuku, veRufura,
Mashukuru weGona,
Vane chitanga chisizari n’ombe
Chinotozara musi weZvita.

Maita vari musakandya, maita vari Njaidza
Vari mhiri kwaNyazvidzi, vari Hwiru,
Vari Raubwi, vari muhari huru,
Vari Chikomo cha Mwabwazhe, Chisema, Sambiri,
Chikara wapazhe, chifambanamana,
Chifuramakuru, mazondo tinodya,
Maita vari svikire, vari Maturi, vari Chivende,
Vari Hibvumwe, Chiputsamukuru Godzamuto,
Shava yangu yiyi, Chitanga, Chikanyamatope.
Maita vari Mupfukudza
Kunodyiwa boora rechiromo,
Vari chikatanwa, vari Boromoka, vari Mandira.

Ganyamatope, hekanhi Madyirapazhe,
Kuti vane zhara kuti vaponewo,
Hekanhi musipa,
Mareranherera, matsikapasi kuzorora kuvata,
Hekanhi Gutu, hekanhi weGona, ndisengei
Senganhundwa, sengamusoro pane romo neziso.
Hekanhi Mhandamakan’a, matakuradumbu,
Matangakunwa muviri une nyota,
Mutsikapachena nepane rima,
Vatambi vemuganyiro.

Maita Mukuvapasi,
Chitivamasvisva,
Chinemukutu,
Chirambamuriwo,
Chidonhamwongo,
Chifuramakuru,
Bumazvirema, hekanhi Masengedzwa,
Teveratsimba mutsvairo wenzira.

Hekanhi Murendo, Mashayachirasshwa,
Mafuta tinozora, runyanga ingonan’ombe,
Gumbo mubhadha, dovo tinowadza.

Nyama tinodya, mukaka tinonwa,
Muswe unhawo, ndove inodzura mumba,
Zvaitwa Chitova, mushukuru we Gonan’ombe,
Aiwa zvaitwa Gumbo,
Chinemukutu, maKorekore.
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Madanha Omugudza-Gumbo
Hekanhi Shawa,
Mushukuro weGona,
Chiputsamukuru,
Ganyamatope
Vatambi voMuganyiro,
Chifuramakuru,
Matsikapasi kuzorora huvata,
Matangakunwa muviri une nyota,
Tevera tsimba mutsvairo wezhira,
Hekanhi murendo,
Mushayachirashwa,
Chitivamsvisva,
Chirambamuriwo,
Mukuvapasi,
Maita vari Maturi,
Godzamuto
Chiputsamakuru
Maita mangaingai,
Shanga iri muuchi,
Godzavakadzi varume vachifa nechina,
Hekanhi Madyirapazhe,
Mushukuro weGonan’ombe
Chidonha mukaka changu chichi,
Chipazhamwongo,
Maita baba,
Vari muhari huru,
Chikanyamatope,
Baba vangu muriritiri,
Vari chikwidzire chamabwe machena,
Chitanga,
Maita Chitova,
Shava huru yakapamba Gona,
Mutakuri weMutovapasi,
Hekanhi Dziko-o,
Ndobata papiko?
A!
Zvaitwa baba,
Maita Sambiri,
Maita Gumbo,
Maita madyirapazhe.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dupo Guru Ravasikana vokwaGutu
Maita madyira
Sambiri,
Mwendo weGona,
Chitanga chisizare n’ombe,
Chinozara musi weZvita,
Chipuriro chamafuta,
Maita Chitova,
veShava huru yakapambe Gona,
Hekanhi weGona,
Senganhundwa,
Sengamusoro pane room neziso,
Matakura-dumbu,
Maita Chitova,
Maita zariro
Vezveve tsvuku,
Zvaitwa madyira
Vachengeti veGona.

Exercise
In pairs or groups, learn to recite your totem/s or any totem such that discussions can be made based on themes found in each poem.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

D
iscuss the usefulness of Archaeological evidence in understanding the Early Iron Age in Zimbabwe.
The key issue is the examination of evidence from the Early Iron Age sites in Zimbabwe
Usefulness suggests importance, relevance and or value
There is need to write also the weaknesses of archaeology in relation to the demands of the question.
Evidence of Early Iron Age include
Gokomere site- pottery remains resemble that of East Africa
Leopards’ kopje-evidence of pastoralist, cattle, sheep/ goat bones
Mabveni- evidence of early agriculture
Makuru- evidence of international trade. Beads dated 960AD
Ziwa-evidence of agricultural activities in the form of terraces
Mapungubwe-evidence of agriculture, pastoralism, trade and mining.
Great Zimbabwe-evidence of agriculture, pastoralism and, trade and mining.

3. How accurate is the view that the most fundamental changes of the early Iron Age cultures in Zimbabwe were economic?
The main issue is the assessment of the importance of the economic changes brought about by the advent of iron as well as other changes in the political and social spheres.
Candidates are expected to argue that iron technology had a crucial impact on the economic life of societies which then affected other activities.
E
conomic activities like agriculture led to increase in population, polygamous marriages began as well as permanent settlements
Accumulation of wealth through cattle rearing and trade impacted on politics hence the formation of chiefdoms and states.

4. Examine the theories that have been put forward to explain the origins and development of a powerful centralized state at Great Zimbabwe
The key issue is the assessment of the theories that led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe
Candidates are expected to focus on the following theories
Religious theory
- Proponents K. Mufuka, T.N Hiffman, Greenfield
     - The state started as a religious shrine
     - archaeological evidence also supports that the claim like soapstone carved birds-totemic, male and female figurines used as teaching aids during the initiation ceremonies, platform excavated in the Great Enclosure was interpreted as an altar
trade theory
Proponents- D. Chanaiwa, D.N Beach, Huffman, Garlake
Great Zimbabwe controlled long distance trade
Rise in the trade in gold and ivory coincided with the rise of the state
Shift of trade route to ultilise the Sabi Lundi rivers near Great Zimbabwe
Cattle hypothesis
Proponents include- D.N Beach, T.N Huffman
S
ocial complexity as a result of increase in cattle wealth
Archaeological evidence- lots of bones remains
Environmental theory
Pull factors at Great Zimbabwe included good rainfall, pastures, abundance of game animals, elephants, timber and granite to build stone structures, nearer to mineral deposits, absence of tsetse fly, water from nearby Mutirikwi river
Push factors- included the fall of Mapungubwe due to drought and famine
5. ‘The Mutapa state was an offshoot of Great Zimbabwe’. Discuss
The key issue is the discussion on the origins of Mutapa state
Candidates are expected to show the extent to which the origins can be attributed to Great Zimbabwe
Candidates may focus on the following;
Depletion of resources at Great Zimbabwe like pastures, wood, salt, minerals, wildlife hence moved North where these were found in abundance
Shifting of trade to the north- trade flourished in the North as the items of trade like minerals (gold), ivory were now found in abundance
Civil wars- Nyatsimba Mutota fled away after failing to succeed his father at Great Zimbabwe. Sub chiefs became rebellious and defied the rulership at Great Zimbabwe e.g. Togwa and Changa leading to civil wars.
Natural disasters- drought and famine ravaged the land resulting in people moving away to look for areas with conducive living conditions
Population explosion resulted in people fleeing for places with spacious room for them to live comfortably hence the North ideal.

6
. Discuss the role played by Cecil John Rhodes in the colonization of Zimbabwe
The key issue is the discussion on Rhodes’ contribution towards the occupation of Zimbabwe in 1890
Candidates may focus on the following
Rhodes’ involvement in signing of a number of treaties for example the Moffat Treaty, Rudd Concession all which spear headed the ultimate colonization of Zimbabwe
His financial background- he owned De Beers Mining Company. He was filthy rich to a point of sponsoring the colonization process of Zimbabwe
Ability to bribe\very corrupt personality- Lotshe abd Sikombi Lobengua’s indunas were bribed
Ability to mobilize military support- published in the new posts with lucrative benefits
Cape to Cairo dream- aimed at painting Africa red. Hence was geared towards having a railway line stretching from Cape to Cairo. Thus for this project to succeed all Nations through which the line was to pass through were to be colonized.
Belief in the existence of the 2ND Rand- he had high hopes of the 2ND Rand following the discovery of diamonds in South Africa. The belt was assumed to be moving to the north across the Limpopo River
Rhodes’ imperialism and his racist bigotry- hoped to create a large British empire; hence Southern Africa became an eyesore.
7. To what extent did the Economic Structural Programme (ESAP) achieved its objectives in Zimbabwe by the mid 1990s.
E
SAP is a top-down economic strategy which is designed to resuscitate an economy using massive doses of foreign exchange (acquired mostly through loans) and hugely increased exports (David Coltart, 1992).
The idea being that the massive injection of foreign capital will enable domestic industry to re-gear itself and thereafter perpetuate economic recovery and growth by dramatically increasing export earnings, and therefore foreign earnings which in turn are used to repay the loans incurred to pay for the initial injection of capital and to build a healthy balance of payments situation for the future.
Due to economic failures, unemployment on the rise in the Zimbabwe government in especially in 1990s period efforts were made to make changes with the hope of bringing positive changes. With the recommendations of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1991 the government of Zimbabwe adopted ESAP which is a market led reform programme.
The candidates need understand and the objectives of ESAP in order to assess the extent to which the objectives were achieved by the mid 1990s.
These are the objectives of ESAP in the period 1991-1995;
•Ismi (2004) argues that the main aims of ESAP were privatization of public institutions, reducing trade tariffs and import duties (trade liberalization), eliminating foreign currency controls, removing protection for manufacturing sectors, de-regulating labour markets, lowering the minimum wage, ending employment security, cutting the fiscal deficit, reducing tax rate, and de-regulation.
• Achieve annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth of 5 percent
•Raise savings to 25 per cent of GDP
•Raise investments to 25 per cent of GDP
•Achieve export growth of 9 percent per annum
•Reduce the budget deficit from over 10 per cent of GDP to 5 per cent by 1995
R
educe inflation from 17.7 per cent to 10 per cent by 1995
▪ Achievements
• The mining industry benefitted partly with monetary reforms, trade liberalization and removal of investment controls. The removal of import permits ensured that inputs such as chemicals, spares for equipment and machinery, explosives and replacement capital were acquired more easily.
•
• Savings and investment ratios partially improved

In as much as the government had set the above objectives it however failed dismally to achieve these goals. The following failures have to be considered;
•Economic growth declined with annual inflation rising to 26.6 per cent
•Employment growth declined to 0.12 per cent
•Manufacturing sector’s share declined from an average 20.4 per cent to 16 per cent
•Many companies closed with retrenchments rampant for instance
•Levels of poverty increased and life expectancy declined due to cuts in social expenditure and implementation of cost-recovery programmes, especially the health sector.
However
•Droughts of 1991/2 adversely affected the ESAP initiatives like power station in Gokwe under Rio Tinto Zimbabwe which could have assisted livelihoods. Gold panning also affected some programmes in the  mining sector

More points can be added.
8
. Assess the view that corruption has been the major stumbling block to economic development in post independent Zimbabwe.
The above question may appear too challenging for most students although there is a better way to respond to this. It important for one to identify key points of the question which are,
Key terms
What is to assess
Corruption,
major stumbling block,
economic development,
post independent Zimbabwe?

-dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in power, typically involving bribery.
-the process by which a word or expression is changed from its original state to one regarded
as erroneous or debased.
-the process of decay; putrefaction
-It is also viewed as the abuse of public resources or public power for personal gain. Corruption Watch is concerned with any such abuse by anyone at any level of government or in business. (http://www.corruptionwatch.org.za/learn-about-corruption/what-is-corruption/our-definition-of-corruption/) accessed on 15 September 2016.
-Corruption has also been interpreted as one of the unholy trinity of dirty money, together with criminal and illegal commercial activities (Baker 2005)
E
xamples of public resources:
Money, goods, vehicles, buildings and any other resources that belong to the government
Pension funds and medical aid funds
Trade union money and resources
Lottery money
Donations to charities
Common forms of corruption:
A business individual pays a bribe to a government official in order to be given a
government contract or license
The use of government-owned resources, such as motor vehicles, for private purposes
A government official takes advantage of his or her position to favour a family member or business associate for a job or tender contract. This is commonly called nepotism
A police officer solicits a bribe or a member of the public offers one in order to escape lawful punishment

9
. Evaluate the measures taken by the government of Zimbabwe in its attempt to develop agriculture from 1980-1990 [9155/5, N 2013].

Define evaluate- draw conclusions from examining or assessment
Agriculture
the science or practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals to provide food, wool, and other products.
Agriculture is the backbone of Zimbabwe’s economy in as much as Zimbabweans remain largely a rural people who derive their livelihood from agriculture and other related rural economic activities. It provides employment and income for 60-70 percent of the population, supplies 60 percent of the raw materials required by the industrial sector and contributes 40 percent of total export earnings.

Three main policy frameworks have affected the performance of agriculture in Zimbabwe in the past two decades. First, there was the “growth with equity programme” pursued by the government between 1980 and 1990. It sought to redress the colonial legacy in favour of communal farmers. Second, there was the “structural adjustment market-oriented reforms”, the Economic Structural Adjustment Program (ESAP), adopted in 1991. Finally, with more profound implications for the sector, there was the programme of “fast-track land resettlement and redistribution “For the purpose of the question under study more attention is paid to 1980 to 1990 started in 2000 and currently in progress.
M
easures taken by Government (1980-1990)
1. Protection of large scale Commercial farmers as a condition of the Lancaster House willing buyer willing seller- this had the merit of leading to the gradual increase in the country's agricultural exports from Z$409.2 million in 1981 to Z$1.1 billion in 1988
Financial institutions had confidence in large scale commercial farming
Large scale farms drew on cheap, long term finance obtained both domestically and offshore

2. Reconciliation policies pursued by the then Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Robert Mugabe

3. Provision of subsidies, free access to seed and fertilizer packs.
In 1986, government took measures to stimulate production through export incentives, introducing the
Export Retention Scheme and the Export Revolving Fund and foreign exchange allocations in favor of exporters. Air transport was improved, the Horticultural Promotion Council was formed, and the communal areas management programme for indigenous resources (Operation Campfire) was established towards the end of the 1980s. In addition, government policy indirectly stimulated export production through the relatively low government-set producer price for maize, which made many commercial farmers diversify into cash crops destined for the more lucrative export markets.

H
owever
Despite following the above policies, it goes without saying that loopholes could be identified1. Formal employment decreased from 327,000 in 1980 to 284,600 in 1989.
2. Unequal access to financial resources for communal farmers under Agricultural Finance Corporation (AFC) this implies that loans reached only a small percentage of the rural population.
By the early 1990s, the interventionist policies had reached their limit and could not be sustained any further, forcing government to embark on market- oriented reforms including in agriculture. The market reforms adopted in 1991 were aimed at market deregulation, liberalization and export promotion (Government of Zimbabwe, 1991).

10.
Examine Zimbabwe’s abandonment of the road to Socialism in 1991
The key issue is an examination of the reasons that led the Zimbabwe government to drop Socialism.
What is Socialism?
Who were the Socialists of the time?
Candidates may focus on the following
Its implementation was contested by some nationalists within the ruling party Zanu PF.
Conditions for the implementation of Socialism as propounded by Karl Marx were not ripe
Parastatals that were fully owned and largely controlled by government failed to perform
Inadequate performance of the economy during the first decade of independent
Limited investment, high inflation
The IMF and World Bank borrowing conditions forced liberalization of the economy.
NB: A balanced essay has to consider internal and external factors to the abandonment of Socialism.
11. why has Robert Mugabe managed to remain in power for such a long period of time?
The key issue is the an examination of the reasons for factors promoting Mugabe’s prolonged stay in power.
Candidates must appreciate Mugabe’s long stay in power despite the external threats and internal opposition. They may include the following measures
Diplomacy
Periodic elections
Control of media
Weak opposition political parties’ e.g ZUM, ZUD (Zimbabwe Union of Democrats), MDC-T, ZAPU, ZIMPF
Use of state machinery
Control of security forces
International support
Popular policies
Liberation war credentials

Further Reading
Chanaiwa D (1972). “Politics and Long-Distance Trade in the Mwene Mutapa Empire in the Sixteenth Century”, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp 424-435
Isaacman AF (1972). Mozambique, The Africanisation of a European Institution: The Zambezi Prazos, pp. 1780-1902, The University of Wisconsin Press, Milwaukee.
Msindo, E (2004). “Ethnicity in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe: A Study of Ndebele-Kalanga Relations, 1860s-1990s.” Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge.
Mudenge SIG (1986). Christian Education at the Mutapa court, Zimbabwe Publishing House, Harare.
Mudenge SIG (1988). A Political History of Munhumutapa, Zimbabwe
Publishing House, Harare. pp. 25-44
Mudenge S.I (1974).  The Journal of African History, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 373-391Published by: Cambridge University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/180666 accessed on 5 January 2017.
Ntaganzwa I Bautu theory’s troubling issued: a close examination of Bantu theory and many of its unanswered questions European Centre for Research, Training and Development UK (www.ea-journals.org), Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 23-33
Ranger, Terence. Voices from the Rocks: Nature, Culture and History in the Matopos Hills of Zimbabwe. Harare: Baobab, 1999.
Ranger, Terence. “The Invention of Tradition Revisited: The Case of Colonial Africa.” in Ranger, Terence and Vaughan, Olufemi. (eds.). Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa: Essays in Honour of A. H. M. Kirk-Greene. London: Macmillan, 1993): 62-111.
Ranger, Terence. Revolt in Southern Rhodesia: A Study in African Resistance. London: Heinemann,
Rodney W (1973). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Published by: Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, London and Tanzanian Publishing House, Dar-Es-Salaam, Transcript from 6th reprint, 1983; Transcribed: by Joaquin Arriola.